<B 


Mr 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


DISTRICT REPRESENTATIVES 


BULLETIN 208 


Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing 

Conditions 

IN 

ONTARIO COUNTY 

BY 

J. H. Hare, B.S.A., Whitby 

(District Representative for Ontario County) 
AND 

T. A. Benson 

(Assistant District Representative) 


Printed by L, K. CAMERON, Printer to tlie King'8 Most Excellent Majesty. 
TORONTO, ONT., January, 1913. 


/V 


BULLETIN 208.] [JANUARY, 1913. 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

DISTRICT REPRESENTATIVES 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions 

IN ONTARIO COUNTY 

LIBRARY 

By J. H. Hare and T. A. Bknson. now v^j^jc 

^ botanicai^^ 

QAkDEN 

INTRODUCTION. 

In Circular 140 of the United States Department of Agriculture 
entitled, " The Egg Trade of the United States/' there is reported a loss 
of 17 per cent., due to the marketing of stale and bad eggs. It is further 
reported in the " Care of Market Eg:gs," Bulletin No. 16 of the Dominion 
Department of Agriculture, that this percentage of loss as reported for 
the United States is a conservative estimate for that which is sustained 
in the Canadian trade. Over two hundred Canadian egg dealers advanced 
that opinion and some would have the figure placed still higher. This 
means that for every 30 dozen case marketed, there is a loss equal to 
the value of 5 dozen eggs. 

This tremendous toll naturally has a very serious effect upon those 
concerned with the production and consumption of eggs. By reason of 
this loss or " shrinkage " the producer is made to accept a lower price 
for his eggs. Produce dealers are put to the extra expense of employing 
experts to examine carefully all of their receipts for the purpose of reject- 
ing those that are not fit for food. Where eggs are not examined, as 
in the case of practically all those that do not go through the hands of 
large produce dealers, the consumer finds himself paying out his good 
money for eggs of which upwards of 20 per cent, are badly deteriorated, 
or perhaps entirely unfit for use. And that is not all. What is still more 
serious to the industry is that when a consumer has many such experi- 
ences he naturally learns to regard eggs with a degree of suspicion. When 
possible he makes it a point to substitute something else for eggs. In this 
way the consumption of eggs is very materially curtailed, the demand is 
lessened, and their reputation as a dependable food product is very seri- 
ously impaired. 

Another prominent feature of present conditions is the pronounced 
indflference with which the great majority of people regard the poultry 
enterprise. It may safely be said that the poultry industry suffers more 
^from unjustifiable neglect than does any other branch of agriculture. 


2 

And what is still more surprising is that this is particularly true of the 
farmer himself. There is absolutely no justification for such indifference, 
not even from a straight financial point of view. By making a fair 
comparison; that is, taking into consideration the capital and labor in- 
volved, the farmer's poultry will yield returns equal to if not greater than 
any which can be derived from any other branch of his business. 

Having some knowledge of these facts, and a special interest in poultry 
work, the writers of this report some time ago determined, if possible, 
to find just where the above stated loss in eggs occurred, who was respon- 
sible for it, endeavor to increase interest in poultry, at least in Ontario 
County, and to establish, if possible, some marketing system whereby the 
heavy loss in eggs might be curtailed or perhaps entirely eliminated. 


Fig. I. — A Typical Farm Flock. 


To accomplish this, it was deemed necessary, first of all, to obtain 
more extensive and complete information as to actual conditions under 
which farm eggs are marketed, following their course carefully from 
the country producer to the final consumer in the larger town or city. 
It was also thought necessary to make a careful examination of actual 
poultry conditions upon a large number of farms. Although this phase 
of the investigation was confined entirely to Ontario County, there is 
reason to believe that the conditions in that County are fairly represen- 
tative of the entire Province. In order to make the investigation of farm 
conditions unmistakably representative in its character, three different 
sections of the County were chosen, and in each section a block of farms 


selected. All farms in each selected block were investigated. The fol- 
lowing form was used in recording the information : 

ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE OF DISTRICT REPRESENTATIVE, WHITBY. 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Investigations. 

Form used for Investiprating Conditions on the Farm. 


Name of farmer 

Address 

Date 


CHARACTER OF FARM: 

Size 

Crops raised 

Stock kept 

Possible accommodation for colony houses 

POULTRY ACCOMMODATIONS: 
Houses- 
Number 

Kind 

Size 

Exposure 

Location and drainage 

Kind of floor 

Floor space per hen 

Light 

Ventilation 

Draughts 

General convenience 

Roosts, kind 

- Roosting accommodation 

Cleanliness, frequent removal of droppings 

Scratching material 


Nests — 


Kind 

Proportionate number 

Cleanliness 

Location 


Runs or Range — 


Character . 
Drainage . . 

Shade 

Cultivation 


POULTRY KEPT: 


Varieties , 

Number Males Females 

Breeding 

Ages 


Vigor 

Health 

Special diseases 

Insect pests 

Natural or artificial incubation . 
Natural or artificial brooding 

Late or early hatching 

Success in rearing chicks 


EGG PRODUCTION : 

Quantity produced (a) summer months 
(b) winter months 

Frequency of gathering 

By whom gathered 

In what 

Weight of eggs per dozen 

KEEPING FOR MARKET: 


Where 

In what temperature 

Freedom from contamination 

How long kept • • 

Grading 

Eggs found in stolen nests 

Washing eggs 

How marketed 

Distance from market 

Name and address of person to whom sold 

Separation of males from flock out of breeding season 
Separation of cockerels from pullets 

METHODS OF FEEDING: 


Drink 

Variety of grain feed 

Grain feeds 

Animal feeds 

Grit ■ • • • • 


Shell , 

Feeding of chicks and young stock 

While the primary object of this farm investigation was to gather 
data with reference to actual poultry conditions, advantage was taken of 
the opportunity to record certain interesting statistics which have been 
summarized in the following table : 

Table No. i, Showing Acreage and Hen Population on 448 Ontario 

County Farms. 


Section 

of 
Comity 


No. of farms 
investigated 


Total 
acreage 


Average size 

of farms in 

acres 


Total No. 
of hens 


Average Na, \--f 

""fX"" heusper 
acre 


North.... 
Centre. .. 
South.... 


112 
180 
156 


13,211 
21,576 
16,873 


117.9 
119.8 
108.1 


7,685 
10,108 
10,137 


68.6 
56.7 
64.9 


.58 
.46 
.60 


Total.... 


448 


51.660 


115.3 


27,930 


63.4 ' .55 


INVESTIGATION OF FARM POULTRY CONDITIONS. 
Ths Farmer's Attitude Toward Poultry. 

Particular note was taken in this investigation of the attitude of the 
farmer towards his poultry. To record this information the following 
classification was made : 

First, " Uninterested Poultrymen," or those farmers who had practi- 
cally no business interest in their poultry. 

Second, those whom, for convenience sake and for the want of a better 
name, we have designated as " Indifferent Poultrymen." 

Third, " Interested Poultrymen," or the more progressive farmers, who 
gave evidence of having some desire to make the most out of their 
poultry. 

Our findings are as follows : 

Uninterested poultrymen 29.4 per cent. 

Indifferent poultrymen 32.0 per cent. 

Interested poultrymen , 38.6 per cent. 

It is evident from these figures that almost two-thirds of the pro- 
ducers of our market eggs are either indifferent or entirely uninterested 
so far as the business management of their poultry is concerned. From 
such a disclosure it is not difficult to understand or believe the claim 
which often has been made, that the loss due to the marketing of stale 
and bad eggs is largely the result, either of indifference or carelessness, 
and is therefore almost wholly preventable. 

TabIvE No. 2. — Showing Proportion of Large and Smali, Flocks on 

448 Ontario County Farms. 


Section 

of 
County 


No. of farms 
investigated 


Percent, of farms 

with less than 60 

hens in flock 


Percent, of farms 

with from 60 to 100 

hens in flock 


Percent, of farms 
with more than 
100 hens in flock 


North 

Centre 

South 


112 
180 
156 


30% 

68% 

56.6% 


49.1% 
17.7% 

28.2% 


20.9% 
14.3% 
15.2% 


Total 


448 


51.5% 


31.7% 


16.8% 


Flocks on Most Farms Too Small. 

It will be noticed in this table that for the centre section there is 
recorded a very large proportion of small flocks. As a matter of fact 
the farmers in this section have had the least success in the production 
of winter eggs. We may therefore conclude that the size of the flock 
contributes at least something to the farmer's success with poultry. From 
observations made in this investigation the rule seems to be, the smaller 
the flock the less interest there is in poultry. Where flocks are larger, 


usually the success attained is greater, and the general conditions are 
better. A flock of seventy-five and upwards is usually regarded as a 
commercial enterprise, and of sufficient importance to warrant the neces- 
sary time to give it what, in the farmer's estimation, is proper care. 
Ordinarily small flocks do not receive this attention. They are maintained 
principally for the convenience of the home, to supply it with eggs and 
fowl. If there is a surplus, it is sold in any convenient way; perhaps 
given to the local grocer in trade for groceries and other household neces- 
sities, or if sold for cash to a travelling huckster, the housewife is gener- 
ously awarded the proceeds. 

It is generally accepted that in order to manage a farm economically, 
there should be some provision made for poultry. And since it is also 
accepted that poultry may be made one of the most profitable, if not the 
most profitable department of the farm, it stands to reason that the flock 
should be of a commercial size. For these and other obvious reasons, a 
farmer should keep a flock of not less than one hundred hens. 

Age to Which Hens are Kept. 
In a large number of instances no system of selling oflf hens which have 
outHved their usefulness as layers, is practised. It is common knowledge 
among good poultrymen that a hen becomes less useful as an egg pro- 
ducer as she grows older. Mr. F. C. Elford, in his recent publication 
entitled " Farm Poultry," says : " Many such experiences have gone to 
prove that as each year a hen grows older her egg-laying ability decreases 
25 per cent." Flocks containing a large proportion of hens, three to five 
years old, are quite common, and on many farms some hens are kept as 
long as they will Hve. For ordinary farm purposes hens older than two 
years should not be retained. A good plan is to leg-band all pullets. 
Place the bands on the left leg one year and on the right leg the following 
year, and so on, alternating each year. In this way there will be no 
difficulty in identifying the older fowl. 

Table No. 3. — Showing How Flocks are Bred on 448 Ontario 

County Farms. 


Pure Bred Flocks 


Breed 


Barred Plymouth Rock . 

White Wyandotte 

White Leghorn 

Silver Grey Dorking 

Silver Laced Wyandotte 
Buff Orpington 


Total. 


No. of 
farms 


53 
6 
5 
3 
2 
1 


70 


Percent, 
of total 


11.8 

1.3 

1.1 

.7 

.4 

.2 


15.5 


Crossbred and Mongrel Flocks 


Breed predominating 


Barred Plymouth Rock . 

Black Minorca 

White Leghorn 

Rhode Island Red 

Brown Leghorn 

White Wyandotte 

Buff Orpington 

Black Spanish 

Silver Grey Dorking. . . . 

Houdan 

SilverSpangledHamburg 

White Rock 

Ancona 

Total 


No. of 
farms 


207 

44 

32 

26 

22 

19 

8 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

1 


Percent, 
of total 


46.2 

9.8 

7.1 

5.8 

4.9 

4.2 

1.8 

1.1 

.9 

.9 

.7 

.7 

.2 


378 


84.3 


General Practice in Breeding. 

There seems to be prevalent among many farmers the erroneous idea 
that much crossing of breeds is a helpful practice in the production of 
a heavy laying strain of fowl. This contention is borne out by the fact 
that only 15.5 per cent, of the farmers visited keep their flocks pure. 
(See Table 3.) Certain first crosses may get useful birds if intelligently 
mated, but for a flock, the chief purpose of which is to produce eggs, 
the pure-bred bird is unquestionably the more profitable. If the farmer 
after making one cross always returned to the use of the original breeds, 
the results would be less serious, but the mistake which is almost universal, 
so far as those having mongrel flocks are concerned, is to continue using 
the cross-bred birds for breeding purposes without even the slightest 
effort at a proper selection. The inevitable result is the reversion to a 
degenerate and much less useful class of mongrel fowl. 

Regular inbreeding without regard to defects or good qualities in the 
fowl mated is another serious mistake which many farmers make. This 
indiscriminate breeding invariably results in a lack of size in the offspring, 
a lack of uniformity in the product, and a general debility of the flock. 
Such a practice should be strongly condemned. 

Still another practice which has a strong influence toward reducing 
the size of fowl, and indirectly the eggs they produce, is that of breeding 
from late hatched birds that have not attained their full maturity. In 
other cases, eggs for hatching have been kept too long before setting, and 
in places not conducive to the preservation of their freshness. Still 
other flocks, not properly fed, and compelled to live in unsanitary houses, 
produce eggs that when hatched, the offspring showed marked evidences 
of debility and weakness. 

Under ordinary circumstances the farmer should choose one of the 
heavier general purpose breeds, keep the breed absolutely pure, and prac- 
tice careful selection in choosing those birds from which to breed, instead 
of taking settings from the general flock as is the common practice. 

Serious Mistakes in Incubation. 


As a rule, farmers do not appreciate the importance of the early hatch- 
ing of chickens. Winter egg production is quite impossible unless pullets 
have been matured early and considerably before the cold winter weather 
sets in. To accomplish this early maturity, the chickens — having refer- 
ence particularly to the heavier breeds — should be hatched before the 
end of May. It is evident from the following table that a large majority 
of farmers make the serious mistake of hatching too late in the season. 


8 

Table No. 4. — Showing Practice of Farmers With Reference to 
Spring Hatching on 448 Ontario County Farms. 


Section or County 


Number of farms 
investigated 


Percent, of farmers 

who complete hatching 

before May 20th 


Percent, of farmers 

who fail to complete 

hatching before May 20 


North 


112 
180 
156 


12.4% 
10.1% 
27.3% 


87.5% 


Centn 

South 


89.8% 
72.6% 


Total 


448 I 16.6% 


83.3% 


Other errors in this connection that are common with a large propor- 
tion of the farmers visited are : The use of eggs produced by unhealthy 
and mismanaged parent stock; the setting of broody hens in the laying 
pen where they are constantly subject to noise and disturbance; failure to 
rid the body of the setting hen from lice and mites ; no attempt at having 
the season's hatches come off at about the same time, in order to have 
chicks of an even age ; and the indiscriminate selection of eggs regardless 
of size and imperfections. Naturally the hatchability of such eggs, and 
the livability of chicks hatched therefrom must be greatly reduced. In 
this, together with a combination of bad conditions resulting in high 
percentages of infertility, weak germs and mortality, may be found the 
explanation for the tremendous loss experienced during the incubating 
and brooding seasons. 


Artificiae Methods of Incubation and Brooding. 

Artificial incubation and brooding is not general among farmers, as 
may be seen from a study of Table No. 5. There are several reasons for 
this, which might be summarized as follows : Low-priced, unreHable 
incubators, being advertised and sold on easy payment terms; a lack of 
knowledge of the most rudimentary laws of incubation, such failure 
being either the result of carlessness or a disposition to discard these 
instructions for some supposedly better original methods; low-priced 
brooders — veritable death-traps — a menace to chick life even in the hands 
of an expert; the feeding of chicks too soon after hatching; the rearing 
of chicks upon soured or otherwise contaminated land upon which many 
generations of chicks have been reared and the land having had prac- 
tically no cultivation during this time. All of these and other preventable 
errors bring disaster, and result in a sweeping condemnation of artificial 
methods. 


9 

Tabls No. 5. — Showing Methods of Incubation and Brooding on 

448 Ontario County Farms. 


Incubation • 


Brooding 


Section 

of 
County 


No. of 
farms in- 
vestigated 


Natural 


Artificial 


Combin- 
ation 


Natural 


Artificial 


Combin- 
ation 


North 112 102 

Centre 180 173 

South 156 134 


3 

6 

15 


7 
1 

7 

1 


103 
173 
140 


3 

6 

10 


6 
1 
6 


Total 448 


409 24 15 


416 


19 \ 13 


Methods of Feeding. 

Commencing with the newly hatched chicks various methods of feed- 
ing prevail. Many of these might be relied upon to bring success if proper 
attention were given to other important details. Bread crumbs fed dry, 
or soaked in either milk or water and squeezed dry, small wheat, oatmeal, 
cornmeal, and shorts figure prominently as foundation rations. In a fair 
proportion of instances a moderate amount of care is exercised in the 
feeding of chicks, but in many cases where chicks begin to die, due to 
errors previously enumerated, interest is soon lost, the chicks are neglected, 
and those surviving are compelled to take " pot-luck " with the older 
birds. Sometimes they forsake their own quarters — usually unsanitary — 
for the houses occupied by the adult fowl, where evil conditions are per- 
haps of longer standing, and where the " red mite " holds undisputed 
sway. It often happens, however, that some of the young birds which 
have come along fairly well, through fear of the older birds will remain 
in their original quarters, or take to some outlying shed where develop- 
ment is much more rapid and satisfactory. 

The feeding of the adult birds during the summer season is, with a 
large proportion of the farmers visited, either entirely neglected or done 
in a very haphazard and irregular manner. The mistaken impression 
that hens do not require attention in the summer season, seems to prevail 
very largely. Then, too, the fact that hens will abundantly repay a little 
extra attention given them during the moulting period, is not, as a rule, 
considered. The result is that all birds to be kept over winter, enter the 
cold season in a condition very unfavorable for egg production. For 
good advice in this connection we cannot do better than quote from 
Prof. W. R. Graham in his recent bulletin on " Farm Poultry." In refer- 
ence to the methods of feeding the summer laying stock at the O. A. C, 
he says : " At the present time our plan of feeding is to scatter whole 
grain in the litter both morning and evening. The grains used are wheat, 
barley, oats, and occasionally buckwheat and corn. Green food is sup- 
plied in the form of grass, etc., in the runs. Sour milk is given as drink." 
As to the methods of feeding the winter laying stock the following is 
written : " Equal parts of wheat, corn and buckwheat are fed both 


10 

morning and evening. The morning feed is fed the previous evening after 
the hens have gone to roost, by sowing it on the htter and then turning 
the Htter over ; the straw is now on top and the grain below, and when 
the hens get up in the morning they start to dig out the grain, and are 
kept busy all forenoon. At noon we feed mangels, cabbage or clover hay. 
The night feed consists of the whole grain fed in troughs, and what the 
birds do not eat is taken up. Rolled oats are kept constantly before the 
hens in hoppers. Buttermilk only is given as drink." 


Fig. 2. — Farm poultry house amid filthy surroundings. 

Dearth of Scratching Material. 
A very important factor contributing to the general experience of no 
winter egg production is the lack of exercise. To ensure vigor and 
health in hens — which conditions are absolutely essential to a maximum 
egg yield — scratching material must be liberally supplied, and the birds 
induced to exercise by scattering at least a part of their feed in a dry 
litter of straw or leaves, which should be from six to ten inches deep. 
Though there is usually an abundance of scratching material close at 
hand, it may be said that practically all farmers, either through ignor- 
ance or pronounced indifiference, fail to attend properly to this simple 
but very important matter. 


11 

Unsanitary Conditions Propagate Disease. 

Objectionable Locations. — It is an uncommon thing to find the 
poultry-house separated from the barnyard by any great distance. In 
many cases the fowl are allotted a section of the main stock stable or they 
are given the entire run of an outbuilding situated very close to the barn- 
yard. While there are certain advantages in such a location where the 
fowl may pick up grain and feed that would otherwise go to waste, there 
are serious evil effects of this arrangement. In the wet season of the 
year most barnyards are in a very muddy and dirty condition, and during 
this time it is difficult to keep eggs clean and attractive in appearance. 
Moreover, under these conditions, the fowl not only have access to, but 
are often forced to drink the filthy barnyard drainage water. This 
greatly facilitates the spread of disease, and in view of that fact it would 
seem advisable to discourage such a location. The nearby orchard or 
lane not too far from the buildings is much to be preferred. 


Fig, 3. — A typical farm poultry house — light and ventilation entirely inadequate. 

House Sanitation. — The health of the average farm flock is not as 
a rule well looked after. In a few cases regular and systematic cleaning 
of the house is observed, but these are the exception rather than the rule. 
In a very considerable proportion of the poultry houses examined the 
term " filthy " does not exaggerate the conditions found. The usual 
practice is to allow the droppings to accumulate for several months before 
any attempt is made at a proper cleaning. In some instances houses are 
provided with dropping boards, and where these are neglected the condi- 


12 

tion of the roosting pen is often much worse than where there is no 
dropping board. 

The majority of houses are lighted by means of a small all-glass 
window about four feet from the ground, usually in the south side, but 
not infrequently in the north, east or west. In some instances no light 
whatever is provided. The question of ventilation is seldom considered. 
An occasional opening of the door in the winter season is usually re- 
garded as sufficient to supply the necessary fresh air. In many houses 
draughfts, especially floor draughts, are particularly bad. Such conditions 
as these contribute very materially to the propagation of disease. 


Fig. 4. — A good farm poultry house; (a) cotton screen between the windows; 
(b) runways; (c) frame covered with cotton for windows. 

Note. — By making provision for still more glass and cotton the front of this 
house could be greatly improved. 

Table No. 6. — Showing Prevalence of Disease on 448 Ontario 

County Farms. 


• • "Section of County 


Number of farms inves- 
tigated 


Percent, of flocks showing, 
serious disease 


North 


112 
180 
156 


21.5% 


PpTitrp 


10.5% 


South 


15.4% 


Total 


448 


15.8% 


The Prevalence oe Disease. 

One of the most surprising discoveries made in this investigation was 
the high percentage of flocks that were more or less affected with disease. 
It is difficult to estimate with any degree of accuracy the losses suffered 
.by farmers from this trouble. In some instances flocks were found to 


13 

have been so seriously affected that large numbers of the affected birds 
were entirely lost through illness. 

The investigation, in this particular alone, discloses a very deplorable 
condition of affairs, and points to the imperative need of giving these 
farmers such education and instruction as will enable them not only to 
diagnose the important diseases but to treat them intelligently. 

Insect Pests. 

Body Lice. — It is generally admitted to be a most difficult matter to 
keep a flock of adult fowl absolutely free from body lice, but given a fair 
chance, hens in good health will keep them sufficiently under control to 
prevent causing any serious trouble. There are several different species 
of lice that infest hens. Of these two are very common and are generally 
known as body lice. The species, Menopon pallidum, is probably the 
most common, and it is a rare thing to find a farm flock which is not 
seriously troubled with this pest. They are exceedingly active and may 
be found on all parts of the body. They often crawl on the hands when 
handling or plucking fowl. Another important species, Menopon biseri- 
atum, is found confined to special regions of the body. Although capable 
of crawling, it is usual for them to remain stationary, sometimes with 
the head buried in the skin and the body erect. Body lice breed and spend 
their life on the body of the fowl. The eggs or nits are laid upon the 
down feathers about the vent and can often be found there, hanging in 
clusters. It is estimated that the second generation from a single louse 
may number 2,500, and a third generation 125,000, and that all of these 
may be produced within eight weeks. Thus it is that a flock considered 
to be quite free from lice, is often found to be infested after being 
neglected for only a few weeks. Exercise, proper feeding, and pure air', 
all help to keep the birds in a condition unfavorable to the existence of' 
lice. Good sanitation is imperative. It is necessary to provide sunny, ' 
well-ventilated houses, in which there is no dampness and no accumula-' '! 
tion of droppings. A suitable dust bath should be provided and placed ' 
in a sunny part of the house. In this box, earth, or sandy loam should ■ 
be placed, rather than coal ashes, as the earth is beneficial to the skin of 
the birds in addition to ridding them of lice. A few handfuls of powdered 
sulphur will add to the effectiveness of the dust bath. All flocks should be 
carefully watched and frequently examined for lice, particularly young 
stock, so much of which is ruined by lice and mites. 

Red Mites. — The so-called red mite is undoubtedly the most virulent 
and aggressive enemy of the farm flock. The natural color of the insect 
is grey. It is only when gorged with blood, like the musquito, that it 
becomes red. 

Few farmers appear to realize the enormity of the ravages of these 
mites, and, having no knowledge of their life history or habits, they are , 
ignorant of the best methods of eradication. Instances of broody hens 
leaving the nest due to mites are common. The investigators have fre- 


14 

quently examined poultry houses, after being told that the flock was 
absolutely free from all insect pests, and discovered myriads of red mites 
merely by lifting a roost or nest box. At this the farmer would express 
the utmost surprise. Without doubt these mites are responsible for a 
large proportion of prevalent disease. The birds are thereby reduced to 
a condition which leaves them an easy prey to disease germs. Further- 
more, such conditions render the fowl utterly useless as layers of winter 
eggs. This undoubtedly is the explanation of many flocks failing to lay, 
even where special efforts are made to obtain eggs during the winter 
season. 

In a recent bulletin (1911) published by the Maine Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, and edited by Messrs. Pearl, Surface, and Curtis, there 
is given some excellent advice upon methods of prevention and treat- 
ment for red mites. It reads as follows : — " Clean, dry, well ventilated 
houses which get plenty of sunlight, are seldom badly infested. The first 
step in eradicating or controlling the pest is thoroughly to clean the houses. 
Remove the droppings and all the old nesting material. Clean, and, when 
possible, scrub or wash with a stream from the hose, all the perches, 
nests, floors and walls, with a mixture composed of three parts kerosene 
and one part crude carbolic acid. Work the mixture into all cracks, 
crevices and joints of the building. 

" With this spray it is necessary to make two or more applications 
at intervals of a few days to destroy the mites which hatch after the first 
application. The liquid may be put on with a hand spray pump or with a 
brush. Cleanliness, fresh air, and sunlight are cheap and effective pre- 
ventatives." 

Another spray successfully used, and which is less expensive is kero- 
sene emulsion. This is made up of kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons; rain 
water, i gallon; soap, 14 lb. Dissolve the soap in water by slicing and 
boiling; take from fire, and while hot pour in kerosene and chum vigor- 
ously for five minutes. For use dilute with nine parts of water so that 
the above three gallons of stock emulsion will make thirty gallons of the 
spray mixture. 

According to the following table the examination of poultry houses 
on 448 Ontario County farms revealed the fact that 75 per cent, of them 
were more or less seriously infested. 

Table No. 7.— Showing Prevalence oe Red Mites. 


Section of County 


Number of farms inves- 
tigated 


T Percent, of "flocks infested 


North 


112 
180 
156 


llAfo 


Centre 


78.4% 


South 


76.5% 


Total 


448 


75.4% 


15 

CARE OF EGGS UPON THE FARM. 

Collecting Eggs. — The frequent and regular collection of eggs from 
the poultry house is not viewed with sufficient importance by the majority 
of farmers. The usual practice is to gather the eggs but once a day during 
both winter and summer. While this may suffice at certain times of the 
year, collections should be made more often during the hatching season 
when broody hens are continually invading the laying pen. In the hot 
midsummer weather, and during the colder part of the winter, a similar 
practice should obtain. If frequent collections are not made during these 
periods the loss due to frozen, heated and hatched eggs, though not 
apparent to the farmer, will nevertheless be great. 

A general lack of system is also evident on many farms. The 
responsibility of collecting eggs is seldom allotted to one person. The 
result is that on some days no collections are made, or, if one is given 
the work who is not familiar with the location of all the nests, some may 
be overlooked and left until a day, or perhaps several days, latter. A 
surprising discovery in this investigation was the fact that 11.8 per cent, 
of the farmers visited were so uninterested in their poultry that no special 
provision whatever had been made for nests. In the case of others there 
were far too few nests for the number of hens kept, and in still others 
too many, a condition which, in winter, favors the chilling and freezing 
of eggs. These facts are evident from a study of Table No. 9. It is little 
wonder that when the product of such farms is candled and graded, there 
is found a very heavy shrinkage. Few of the above difficulties arise where 
there is provided one clean, inviting nest for every five hens in the flock. 

Table No. 9. — Showing Relation oe Number oe Nests to Number 
OF Hens on 448 Ontario County Farms. 


No. of farms 


Percent, of total 


Nests provided * 


53 


11.8 


No special provision for nests 


by 


13.1 


From 2 to 10 nests per lOO^birds 


145 


32.4 


From 10 to 20 1 " " 100 « " 


103 


22.9 


From 20 to 30 " " 100 " 


49 


10.9 


From 30 to 40 " " 100 i " 


??o 


8.7 


From 40 to 46 " " 100 • " 


Improper Methods oe Keeping Eggs Preparatory to Marketing. 

The mistake of storing eggs in improper places, preparatory to mar- 
keting, is common with many farmers. There seems to be a general lack 
of appreciation of the fact that an ^gg is a very perishable product. Few 
realize that the heat of an adjoining room or the odor of some strong- 
smelling vegetable, is sufficient greatly to reduce the quality of eggs. The 
source of trouble in many instances is the holding of eggs in a damp 
cellar, or in a small room or pantry, adjoining a heated kitchen. Eggs 
should be kept in a cool room free from draught, dampness or any foul 
odors, and in a temperature not exceeding sixty degrees. Usually such 
a place may be found in a cool dry cellar or cellar-way. 


16 

Washing Eggs. 

Careless, neglectful methods in the poultry house as well as wet and 
dirty ranges often result in a large proportion of dirty eggs. It is the 
common practice of some of the most self-respecting farmers or their 
wives to carefully wash these stained or otherwise soiled eggs. For 
immediate consumption such eggs are as good as those that are unwashed,, 
but for storage purposes they are not so valuable. This is due to the fact 
that the soluble portion which serves as a hindrance to evaporation, and 
a protection against the entrance of organisms of deterioration, is washed 
from the surface of the shell. Moreover, such a practice is liable to 
dampen the membrane which is immediately beneath the shell. When 
this membrane is wet, germs of putrefaction effect an entrance much more 
readily, thus rendering the egg more subject to contamination. 


Fig. 5.— A " found " nest. 

Marketing of Partially Incubated Eggs. 
Unfortunately cases of this dishonest practice are not wanting. 


It 


certainly can hardly be claimed that such a practice results from ignorance. 
The same may be said of marketing eggs from stolen nests, which is an 
all too common practice, as borne out by the candlers of large city egg 
dealers. Many of these eggs are found in the fields or in favorite hiding- 
places about the buildings. While accumulating before discovery, they 
are probably being subjected to dampness from frequent rains or exposed 
to the direct rays of the hot sun. Both of these factors cause eggs to 
deteriorate very rapidly. 


17 

REMOVAL OF Male Birds After the Breeding Season. 

It is remarkable how few farmers appreciate the importance of infer- 
tility in market eggs. To make provision for the infertility of 
an egg does not necessarily guarantee the absolute preservation of its 
good quality; but such an egg, being free of the active germ cell, wiM 
not, under ordinary storage conditions, deteriorate seriously. The great 
bulk of eggs which are spoiled for purposes of consumption are the fertile 
eggs, which, having been subjected to heat above seventy degrees, undergo 
partial incubation. If the heat is continuous and strong enough, the 
development of the chick will continue; but if it ceases or is intermittent, 
putrefaction at once sets in and the eggs become bad. Such eggs are 
known to the trade as " blood rings," " floats," " heavy floats," or " rots," 
depending upon the degree of deterioration they have undergone. Few 
farmers have any knowledge of these facts, and consequently practically 
none have made any effort to ensure infertility. They seem to have the 
erroneous impression that the presence of the male bird is essential to 
the production of a maximum number of eggs; but it has been proved 
beyond all question of doubt that such an arrangement is not necessary, 
and for the reasons set forth, is highly undesirable. 


REVIEW OF PRESENT METHODS, OF MARKETING EGGS 

AND CONSEQUENT LOSSES. 

The Flat Rate System and the Country Merchant. 

The farmer is not the only one accountable for the heavy shrinkage 
in market eggs. Along the course of trade through which eggs pass, there 
are other handlers commonly known as " middlemen," with whom should 
be placed much of the responsibility. This is true because of the system 
which they invariably employ in the purchase of the farmers' eggs. This 
system is known as the " case count," or " flat rate " system, and consists 
of paying one common price for all eggs. 

The country merchant, who is usually the first to receive the farmer's 
eggs, is in the habit of receiving weekly or semi-weekly quotations from 
large egg dealers, and upon these quotations he bases his price. The evil 
feature of this system is in the fact that no consideration whatever is' 
given to the question of quality. The farmer who is in the habit of 
supplying the merchant with an attractive lot of clean and strictly fresh 
eggs receives no more in price than the farmer whose eggs are small, 
soiled, stale, or part of which are bad and entirely unfit for consumption. 
The result is that the farmer is in no way induced to properly care for 
the product upon the farm. There is also held out to unscrupulous pro- 
ducers the temptation to include in the case prepared for the market, eggs 
that are known to be of questionable quality. Though the merchant 
to whom such eggs are sold has absolute knowledge, or, at least, well- 
founded suspicions, that the eggs brought in by the farmer are not fresh 
as represented, he usually prefers to accept them without making the 
slightest complaint. The merchant's policy is to cultivate as large a trade 
as possible in eggs. He knows that by so doing other departments of his 


18 

business will be proportionately increased. As a result he is strongly 
tempted to bid high for eggs, seeking to outdo his competitors, knowing 
that if he chances to lose on the eggs he handles he can very easily make 
the loss good, simply by inflating proportionately the cost of the miscel- 
laneous articles the farmer desires to purchase or take in trade. 

Still ano'ther practice of some local merchants is to advertise two 
prices; one a cash price, and the other a trade price, usually about two 
cents higher than the cash price. If the farmer is determined to have cash 
he is forced to be satisfied with the lower price. If, on the other hand, he 
consents to take groceries or other goods in trade for his eggs, he is 
represented as being paid the higher price. In reality this higher one is 
not the real price, but a fictitious one which is set by the merchant for no 
other purpose than to secure the farmer's trade. Upon the account form 
rendered by the merchant there may be represented goods to the value of 
the eggs figured out at the higher price, but at the same time the merchant 
is often careful to increase the cost of the goods taken in trade equal to 
the advance given for eggs, or in some other way make up the difference. 


Fig. 6. — Careless handling of returned egg cases. 

Note. — The paper fillers in these egg cases were thoroughly soaked by a drench- 
ing rain. This is one of the causes of mouldy and musty eggs. 

Another evil of this " case count," or "flat rate " system, is that the 
innocent suffer with the guilty. Those farmers who are supplying the 
markets with strictly fresh eggs, and of first quality in other respects as 
well, suffer from the low price, caused by the presence of inferior eggs 
supplied by others who are careless, or perhaps dishonest in their dealings. 
Commission merchants know what shrinkage to count on at certain sea- 
sons of the year, and naturally they pay a price which is sufficiently low to 
cover at least a portion of that shrinkage. And not only does the unoffend- 
ing farmer suffer by reason of this present antiquated system of market- 
ing ^gs, but the equally innocent consumer is at the same time charged 
a higher price to assist in covering the shrinkage or so-called loss suffered 
"by commission merchants. 


ly 

Tnt Huckster. 

The travelling egg buyer, commonly known as the huckster, figures 
very prominently in the egg trade of Ontario. His custom in some sections 
is to call at the doors of the farm houses and solicit the purchase of the 
farmer's eggs. In other sections he will estabhsh himself in some con- 
venient central point — usually a small village in the midst of a good 
trading section — and announce to the farmers in the community that on a 
certain day he will receive their eggs. As a rule, there is little or no com- 


_ .^Mik^ ..^k^a^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 


Fig. 7. — Market day in a country town. 

petition, and needless to say he buys at his own price. From here he 
passes on to another point, duplicating the practice on the following day. 
From the standpoint of quality in eggs received by the larger markets, 
those received from the huckster generally compare very favorably with 
those coming from other sources. It is the usual practice of the huckster 
to make regular weekly collections. Where farmers are in the habit of 
selling to him regularly, such eggs are fair in quality. But, with this 
system, the price received by the farmer is usually not so high. 


30 

While the huckster, as a rule, makes regular weekly shipments to the 
larger markets, careless or deliberate holding of eggs is sometimes his 
practice. In one instance which came under our notice, a large quantity 
of eggs was left over by a huckster in an ordinary shed for a whole week 
during the hottest weather experienced in the summer of 191 1. His 
excuse for holding these eggs was that his waggon was overloaded, and 
that if the eggs were shipped by express or freight, his profit would be 
too small. However, it is worthy of note that at that particular time the 
market price for eggs was on the upgrade. 


Fig. 8. — Candling and grading eggs. 

The Locai, Market. 

In many small country towns, particularly in districts surrounding 
large consuming centres, there have been established market places which 
are utilized by farmers on a set day of each week, for the exclusive pur- 
pose of selling poultry, eggs and butter to visiting agents of large produce 
firms. It is often stated in support of the local market that this system 
is superior to all others, for the reason that there is keen competition 
between the buyers, and because of this, high prices rule. But the most 
superficial investigation will give one well founded suspicions that, as a 


21 

rule, there is no trace of the avowed competition, but in its stead, an 
arrangement to pay a certain fixed price. Here, too, all eggs are bought 
■on the " case count " basis. 

Though these are the most important methods by which farmers dis- 
pose of their eggs, there is still one other that is worthy of notice. A 
certain proportion of the better and more progressive farmers, in seeking 
to obtain a higher price for their eggs, pass by one or more middlemen 
and deal directly with large produce houses, retail stores, or with the final 
<:onsumer. Such eggs are generally of a higher grade and are acknow- 
ledged by those accustomed to receiving them, to be of a better class than 
eggs marketed in any other way. 


■■''♦» 


* 'r**' m 


m 


1 

. 4 


P 


x' 

\ 

4 

ii'ii<ilftiiW>i 


t. i 


mm " « -^ 
« « •. ' « 

. * * ■ m t 


■ m»m-ikmi 


* 

1 

\ 


i 


ss 


"" " 


»«»».ilK,'£S»i,vV. . . > .- ■. 


HWS^I 


c 


..^ 


:^^:-— -- 


-^^- 


•~ - 


■M 


Fig. 9. — Spoiling eggs by subjecting them to the direct rays of the hot sun — a 
common mistake of the retailer. 


CANDLING AND GRADING MARKET EGGS. 

While by no means all eggs delivered to the larger markets are candled, 
there is that portion of the trade, handled by the large produce dealers, 
vvhich is carefully examined and graded. The process of candling con- 
sists simply in the examination of the tgg in a dark room before an open- 
ing in a shield covering a small incandescent light or coal oil lamp. Before 
such a light, an &gg appears comparatively transparent, sufficiently so to 
enable the expert to determine the extent to which the contents of the 
egg have evaporated, or the degree to which the tgg has deteriorated in 
quality. The illustration (Fig. 8), which is a flashlight photograph, shows 


22 

very clearly the nature of the apparatus used, the candler at work, and 
also the various grades made of the eggs after examination. This process 
of course is costly, taking considerable time and expert service, adding 
not only to the cost of eggs to the consumer, but to the reduction of the 
farmer's receipts. 

However, it is fortunate for the general public, at least of large con- 
suming centres where such establishments are operating, that such eggs 
are to be had, and that they are subjected to such careful examination. 
In buying candled eggs consumers may feel comparatively sure that the 
eggs they are purchasing are as represented. 

The Town or City Retailer. 

On the other hand, there is a portion of the trade which comes from 
the country storekeeper, the huckster, or the farmer, directly to the retail 
merchant, which, as a rule, is not candled or graded. Consumers in vil- 
lages and outlying towns are supplied with this class of ungraded eggs 
almost entirely. Consequently they have to assume the entire risk. This 
practice undoubtedly results in a great curtailment of consumption, and 
indirectly loss to the industry. To illustrate the truth of this general 
statement it may be said that the housewife, in buying bad eggs is so 
disgusted that the next time when eggs are desired, she determines that 
something more dependable must be bought. The consequence is, fewer 
eggs are purchased, the price goes down and the reputation of this com- 
modity is seriously injured. 

Nor is the retail merchant always free from blame in the matter of 
selling deteriorated eggs. Often his zeal for business seemingly overcomes 
his reason and he apparently forgets, or is ignorant of the fact that eggs 
take on strong odors in a favorable atmosphere, as in a room where 
kerosene is stored ; that they become mouldy and musty if placed in damp 
locations ; and that they actually hatch into chickens if placed in a suitable 
temperature. The merchant is often as much in need of education as 
the farmer. 

THE NEED OF EDUCATION. 

The poultry industry is in need of a great awakening. The farmer 
should be aroused and made to see that his poultry is in reality one of the 
best revenue producing branches of his farm ; that there is a distinct place 
in his business for poultry ; that his flock should be made larger and thus 
put on a better commercial basis; and that he would be abundantly 
rewarded with better results if he directed the management of his poultry 
according to the few well established and generally recognized successful 
methods. He should be made to realize that as a matter of fact, he, and 
not the middleman, suffers heavily by reason of the loss due to spoiled 
eggs. Such work as this may be accomplished by the distribution of more 
educational literature, by more public discussion, by the agricultural press, 
and through the agency of the Government's agricultural experts. 


23 

THE DEMONSTRATION POULTRY HOUSE. 

During the past few years a great deal of effective teaching has been 
done by means of demonstration. One branch of agriculture, namely, 
fruit-growing, seems to have lent itself very readily to this method. The 
District Representatives who are located in fruit-growing sections, have 
taken advantage of this, and by the management of demonstration 
orchards have wonderfully increased the interest taken by farmers in the 
proper care and management of their fruit trees. The success achieved 
along this line suggested to us the possibility of the adoption of the same 
idea in connection with poultry. Our desire was to work out some means 
of illustrating to farmers, a good type of poultry house, pi'oper appli- 
ances to install in the house, proper methods of feeding, and chief of all, 
to demonstrate the possibility of winter egg production, fn the fall of 
the past year the house as illustrated by Fig. lo was built. It was loaned 
to an energetic and enterprising farmer on condition that the flock it 
contained be managed and fed according to directions given. The results 
in winter egg production were excellent. The pullets were not of a bred- 
to-lay strain, but were early hatched, healthy, vigorous birds from pure- 
bred stock. 


Fig. 10. — Demonstration poultry house. 


This scheme was eminently successful in arousing the interest of the 
farmers in that locality. Everyone had the privilege of making an 
examination of the house and enquiring as to methods of management, 
etc. Surprising advantage was taken of this privilege and the effect upon 
production during the first winter season was very marked. 


24 

A BREEDING STATION. 

Such a poultry house which has been so effectively used as a Demon- 
stration house may also serve the purpose of what in European countries 
would be called a Breeding Station. The house should contain well-bred 
utility hens, that the eggs and offspring therefrom would be of such a 
character as to effect improvement in the farmer's flock. If the farmer 
or poultryman who has the management of the station is at all successful 
in getting good results he should have no difficulty in finding ready sale, 
at moderate prices, for eggs during the hatching season and for male 
birds in the fall of the year. This line of work is most essential as a 
part of a poultry improvement campaign. In fact, one cannot hope to 
make poultry educational work effective unless there is provided some 
source from which farmers may secure improved breeding stock. 


CO-OPERATION IN THE MARKETING OF EGGS. 

The egg trade requires a marketing system, the working or selling 
principle of which is based upon quality. What is known to the trade as 
the " loss off " system should be adopted in place of the " case count " 
system which is now so universal. So long as the latter system prevails, 
proper and sanitary methods of production and care of this very perish- 
able product will be discouraged. As a matter of fact, the present 
method amounts practically to the placing of a premium on careless and 
dilatory methods. By reason of this basis of buying eggs, educational 
work is rendered difficult if not very largely fruitless. The farmer is 
repeatedly advised to improve the breeding of his poultry stock in order 
to weed out the small Qgg, to keep his poultry house and nests in a clean 
and inviting condition in order to reduce the number of stale eggs through 
hens stealing their nests, to gather the eggs twice daily, to keep them 
stored, preparatory to marketing, in a clean, cool place, and to market 
them more frequently. To follow this advice is most essential if it is 
the desire to produce eggs of the highest quality. But it entails some 
little care which the poultry department of the average farm is not in the 
habit of receiving. Therefore, when given such advice, the farmer 
naturally asks this question: "What are we going to get for it?" So 
long as the " case count " system of marketing continues, the answer 
which must follow is, " Practically nothing." The system is at fault, 
therefore the system must necessarily be changed. The price paid for 
eggs should be based upon the quality of the product at the time of sale. 
Such a system would, by the encouragement of better methods of caring 
for and marketing the product, very greatly assist in preventing the 
heavy loss which the Canadian egg trade now sustains. 

The produce of all Co-operative Marketing Associations (which are 
commonly known as " Egg Circles " where eggs only are handled) is 


25 


sold on a quality basis. The members also are paid according to the 
grade of the product which they supply to the management of the Asso- 
ciation. This is one of the leading and most important features of such 
an organization. The success of the movement has been very largely due 
to the strict observance of that principle. 

The organization of Co-operative Egg Marketing Associations is, 
therefore, one method of instituting and enforcing the system of buying 
eggs on a quality basis. Such an organization has also the advantage of 
cheaper transportation where large quantities of eggs are shipped. In 
some cases unnecessary middlemen may be eliminated. Such an organ- 
ization also facilitates more frequent shipment and greater dispatch in 
placing the product upon the market. Where good management is em- 
ployed, the members also derive benefit from the expert salesmanship of 
the manager. 

The Movement in Ontario County. 


About two years ago a movement was started in Ontario County to 
establish the co-operative system of selling poultry products. The work 
commenced with the handling of eggs. Egg Marketing Associations 
were formed in two of the most promising sections. It was our desire 
that the farmers should try out the scheme for themselves. If the 
result showed no improvement over present methods, the matter, of 
course, could be dropped. On the other hand, if it proved to be a useful 
and remunerative organization the movement would naturally grow, and 
that growth being largely spontaneous, progress would therefore be much 
more satisfactory. Eight organizations have since been formed. Accord- 
ing to the last reports the present membership is over 500 farmers. The 
total membership has increased one hundred per cent, in the past year, 
and this has been very largely due to farmers voluntarily asking for 
organizations or for permission to join one or other of the organizations 
already established. In the case of one organization, No. 7, with head- 
quarters at Cannington, the business has averaged over $1,000 per month 
for the past ten months. The movement has made a natural growth, its 
development being entirely due to the success of those organizations 
which were first established. In all cases the extension of the movement 
has taken place in those sections surrounding and in the immediate 
vicinity of established organizations. This is the best evidence which we 
can give of what the farmers themselves think of the movement, or of 
the "Co-operajtive Marketing Association. 

The growth and popularity of the movement has been brought about 
largely because of the increased prices which the members of these 
organizations have been receiving over and above prevailing local market 
prices. It is difficult to obtain accurate figures showing the advance in 
price which members have been getting, because of the influence which 
the movement has on local market prices; but, to give approximate 


26 

figures, the advance in the spring and summer sesasons has ranged from 
one to three cents, and in the fall and winter months from three to as 
high as twelve cents. This premium which the " marked " eggs from 
these organizations have been bringing on the near city markets is 
directly due to an improvement in quality. However, the quality even 
yet is by no means perfect. A great deal more remains to be done than 
that which is already accomplished. But the fact remains that some 
improvement has been made, and because of that improvement, the eggs 
have commanded a higher price. 

Though this increased price is largely responsible for the rapid 
growth which the movement has made, it must be kept in mind that this 
is not by any means the only benefit to be derived from a Co-operative 
Marketing Association. In the writer's estimation, it is the least im- 
portant. The chief virtue of such an organization is the effect which it 
has upon the farmer's attitude toward his poultry, and the handling and 
marketing of eggs. By reason of the better prices and general satisfac- 
tion which this system gives, farmers are particularly desirous of remain- 
ing with the organization after once having joined. In order to retain 
his membership the farmer must carefully follow the rules and regula- 
tions as outlined in the Constitution and By-laws. In order to do this, 
he seeks advice and instruction from the management of the organization. 
In this way the old-time indifferent farmer is changed into a keenly in- 
terested one. He becomes remarkably receptive and even looks to the 
management to guide him in the detailed management of this part of his 
business. This offers a wonderful opportunity for doing most effective 
educational work. 

The following is a suggested Constitution and By-Laws for a Co- 
operative Marketing Association. 

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS. 
Constitution. 

1. The Co-operative Poultry and Egg Marketing Association has 

for its object the increasing of the profits to poultry raisers by Co-operation. 

2. The Association seeks to reach its object: 

(a) By marketing eggs and poultry of only the best quality. 

(b) By selling eggs and poultry delivered to its members at the highest 
possible price. 

(c) By buying for its members grit, feed, shell, and such other supplies 
as are needed in the production of poultry. 

(d) By buying such pure bred stock and eggs as may be needed in im- 
proving and supplementing the stock already kept by the members. 

(e) By the dissemination of poultry know^ledge. 

3. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held during the first two 
weeks in January of each year. 

4. Notice of the annual meeting shall be given each member by the Secre- 
tary not more than one week previous to the date of this meeting. 


27 


5. Special meetings may be called at any time upon call of the President, 
by written notice mailed to each member five days before the meeting. 
Special meetings shall be called by the President whenever required to do so 
in writing by any ten members. 

6. At the annual meeting a Board of seven Directors shall be elected, of 
whom four present and voting shall constitute a quorum at any board meeting. 

7. The Directors shall be elected for a period of two years except at the 
time of organization, when four shall be elected for two years and three for 
one year. In succeeding election all members elected to the Directorate shall 
be elected for the full period of two years. A retiring member may be re- 
elected. 

8. The officers shall consist of a President, Vice-President, Secretary and 
two Auditors. 

9. The President, Vice-President and Secretary shall be chosen by the 
Directors from among themselves at the first board meeting after the annual 
meeting. The Auditors shall be elected at the annual meeting at the time of 
the election of Directors. 

10. The Directors may select three of their number to act as an Executive 
Committee (the President to serve as Chairman) to have general charge of 
the afifairs of the Association. 

11. The President shall preside at all meetings. He shall call meetings of 
the Board of Directors and members when necessary, and shall advise with 
and render such assistance to the Manager as may be in his power. In his 
absence the Vice-President shall have and exercise all rights and powers of 
the President. 

12. The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of all meetings, 
and of all receipts and disbursements and report the condition of the finances 
annually or as often as the Directors shall desire. 

13. The Board of Directors shall be responsible for the work of the As- 
sociation. They shall closely supervise the work of the Manager and shall 
deal with misdemeanors of members. They shall carry on educational work 
among members of the Association by the distribution^ of educational litera- 
ture, and by arranging for educational meetings from time to time. 

14. It shall be the duty of the Auditors to examine the accounts of the As- 
sociation twice during the year (July ist and January ist). The July report 
of the Auditors shall be made to the Board of Directors, and the January 
report at the general meeting. The Auditors, however, possess the right to 
examine the accounts whenever they so desire. 

15. The Board of Directors shall employ a business Manager who shall also 
act as Treasurer of the Association. The business Manager shall not be a 
member of the Board of Directors. 

16. When a vacancy shall occur through any cause in any of the offices 
established by the Constitution and By-laws of the Association, it shall be 
filled at the next regular or special meeting. 

17. The Directors of the Association have full power to expel any member 
who refuses or neglects to comply with the rules of the Association. 

18. All the elections shall be by ballot, plurality electing, conducted by two 
scrutineers appointed by the Chairman. 

19. This Constitution, or any part thereof, may be amended at any regular 
or special meeting by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the members present. 


28 
By-Laws. 

1. The Manager shall have charge of the affairs of the Association in detail 
under the direction of the Board of Directors. 

2. The remuneration of the Manager shall from time to time be fixed by the 
Directors, and may be by way of salary or commission. 

3. Members of the Association are subjected to the following regulations: 

(a) They must deliver all eggs not to be used for their own housekeeping 
or breeding purposes at a time and place determined by the Board of Direc- 
tors. All eggs must be unbroken, clean, fresh, of good size, and not more 
than one week old. 

(b) Before being delivered all eggs must be starhped at the broad end 
with the stamp supplied by the Board of Directors. The stamp is the property 
of the Association and must be returned to the Manager when membership 
ceases. 

(c) Only false eggs of gypsum, china, etc., may be used as nest eggs. 

(d) Eggs must be gathered twice a day, and kept in a cool room, free 
from draught, dampness or any foul odors, and in a temperature not exceeding 
60 degrees nor lower than 45 degrees. 

(e) No member shall be permitted to dispose of eggs through the As- 
sociation, from other hens than his own. 

4. Membership may be obtained by all poultry keepers living in the vicinity 
of upon payment of an entrance fee of thirty cents. Only those 
will be admitted who will strive to promote the aims of the Association, and 
whose applications are accepted by the Board of Directors. 

5. Application for membership must be made to the Board of Directors in 
writing, the application specifying the number of hens which the applicant 
keeps. Entrance fees must be paid on acceptance by the Board of Directors. 

6. An annual membership fee of 25c shall be imposed upon each member at 
the beginning of each year, the said membership fee to be used for defraying 
the running expenses of the Association. Where a balance remains at the 
close of the year it shall be carried over to the following year, and held as a 
reserve fund. In case membership fee is not sufficient to meet the running 
expenses of the Association, a special fee may be levied by the Board of 
Directors, sufficient to meet the liabilities of the Association. 

7. In case members do not observe the rules of the Association, a system 
of fines may be adopted and enforced by the Board of Directors. 

8. If the Association should become dissolved, the profits which remain 
after all debts have been paid, shall be divided among the remaining mem- 
bers. The deposits shall first be paid back, after which any remaining assets 
shall be distributed among those members who have belonged to the Associa- 
tion at least one year, the said distribution to be made in proportion to the 
value of the eggs delivered by each member. 

9. These by-laws may be amended at any regular or special meeting by a 
two-thirds affirmative vote of the members present. 

It is the experience of the writers what if those in charge of Co- 
operative Marketing Association formulate a very arbitrary set of rules 
and stipulate that a violation of the said rules will result in immediate 
expulsion, the outcome will be disastrous. Some theoretical co-opera- 
tors may object to this, but we question if any other policy will work out 
in practice. Strict observance of the rules should, of course, be kept 
continually before the members as being the secret of success, but it must 


39 

be kept in mind that the average farm flock does not as yet command 
much interest from the farmer, and is not, as a rule, looked upon as a 
business proposition. It becomes important, therefore, first to enlarge 
his view of the enterprise ; to enable him to see the advantage of the bet- 
ter methods agreed upon by the Association and by means of this educa- 
tion, he will soon develop into a desirable member. 

The egg gatherer is usually the manager of the organization. He 
collects the eggs on a certain day each week, candles and prepares the 
same for shipment, and delivers them to the shipping station. He also 
receives the returns for the shipment, reserves his commission, pays the 


Fig. II. — Egg collector of an Ontario County Egg Circle. 

freight or express charges, places to the credit of the Association Bank 
Account any fraction of a cent which would make payment to the farmers 
difficult and with the balance he returns to the members as high a price 
as possible, of course making deductions where bad or inferior eggs are 
delivered. 

A Poultry and Egg Marketing Association is not unlike a co-operative 
fruit growers' association. They are alike in this particular, at least, viz., 
that success depends to a very great extent upon the energy, ability and 
honesty of the manager employed; and so important is this, that unless 
an association is able to secure a man of such character, it had better 
give up the idea altogether, and thus avoid the disappointment of failure. 


30 


A FEW CONCRETE CONCLUSIONS. 

1. In the investigated district, only 38.6 per cent, of the farmers ap- 
peared to be taking a business-like interest in their poultry. 

2. The great majority of farm flocks are composed of cross-bred or 
mongrel fowl. Such indifferent and neglectful methods of breeding as 
are indicated by the type and quality of birds commonly found on most 
farms naturally result in a lack of size and uniformity in market eggs 
and dressed fowl, and an increase in constitutional weakness. 

3. Old hens are not profitable egg producers. This fact is not re- 
garded by the majority of farmers. 

4. Allowing male birds the freedom of the flock after the breeding 
season is practised almost universally. The discontinuance of this prac- 
tice would greatly reduce the shrinkage in market eggs. 

5. Hatching too late in the season is one of the greatest of the farm- 
ers' mistakes. This is one of the chief reasons for little or no winter 
egg production. 

6. The feeding of farm hens in midsummer is often very seriously 
neglected. 

7. The incomplete ration is another factor contributing to poor winter 
results. Eggs cannot be manufactured unless all of the necessary con- 
stituents are supplied, viz., grain (including whole grain and dry mash), 
animal food, green food, grit, and oyster shell. 

8. Lack of exercise when confined is another important reason for 
poor results in winter egg production. Scattering the grain in a deep, 
dry litter of straw will overcome this difficulty. 

9. The great majority of farm poultry houses are unsanitary, ill- 
ventilated and insufficiently lighted. 

10. Disease is prevalent to an alarming extent. 

11. The Red Mite is the chief enemy of the farm flock. This pest, 
which is common everywhere, is a potent factor in destroying the useful- 
ness of otherwise productive and profitable flocks. 

12. The reason for hens stealing their nests is found usually to be in 
an uninviting condition of the hen house and nests, or the supply of an 
insufficient number of nests. Nearly 12 per cent, of the farmers visited 
have provided no nests whatever. 

13. Hatched, mouldy, musty and stale eggs are largely due to eggs 
being laid away in hidden nesits, inattention to broody hens, or to ir- 
regularity or infrequency in making egg collections. 

14. The perishable nature of an egg is too little understood. Damp- 
ness, excessive heat (above 60 degrees), strong odors, draughts, delay in 
marketing, are factors which very quickly destroy the freshness and good 
quality of eggs. 


31 


15- It is the opinion of the majority of Canadian egg dealers, that the 
Canadian Egg Trade sustains a loss of at least 17 per cent. This means 
that for every 30-dozen case marketed, there is a loss equal to the value of 
five dozen eggs. This loss is very largely the result of defective methods 
of production and marketing. 

16. The chief fault of the present method of marketing eggs is the 
"case count," or "flat rate" system of buying and selling the product. 

17. Eggs should be bought and sold on merit. The price received or 
paid should be strictly in accord with the quality of the product. 

18. To allow as much for inferior eggs as for eggs of the highest 
quality is practically the same as placing a premium on careless and 
dilatory methods. 

19. The basis of payment of an Egg Selling Association or an Egg 
Circle is that of quality. Only first-class eggs receive a first-class price. 
All eggs are paid for according to their grade, as shown by the process of 
candling. 

20. In an Egg Circle, members have the advantages of more frequent 
marketing, cheaper transportation, the elimination of unnecessary mid- 
dlemen, access to the latest and best in poultry knowledge, and expert 
salesmanship, all of which naturally result in the elimination of loss, a 
higher class product, a keen demand for their product, and larger net 
profits. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

PCBLISHED BY THB ONTABIO DEPARTMENT OF AGBICUI.TURE, TORONTO. 

sierial 
No. Date. Title. Author 

i69 Feb. 1909 Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of ( g p Edwards 

Nitrogen Accumulation In tlie Legu- < g" B^riow 

minosse ( 

170 Mar. 1909 Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | W.o! Walker.^" 

I Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Betbuno. 

171 April 1909 | j,^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ Vegetables. { f ^h^owIU*'"" 

172 May 1909 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revisod) Dairy School. 

173 Oct. 1909 Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

174 Dec. 1909 Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay?... W. H. Day 

175 Dec. 1909 Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day 

176 Dec. 1909 Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and 

Quince Trees D. H. Jones. 

177 Dec. 1909 Lime-Sulph ar Wash | ^- (i'aesar "^"^ 

178 Dec. 1909 Character and Treatment of Swamp or / W. I*. Gamble 

Muck Soils \ A. Ei Slater. 

179 Feb. 1910 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Plant- 

ers (No. 147 revised) Fruit Ex. Stations 

180 April 1910 Flour and Breadmaklng J ^ "^ pu?dy. 

181 June 1910 The Teeth and Their Care 6nt. Dental Soc'y. 

182 July 1910 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

183 Aug. 1910 Notes on Cheddar Cheese-Making Dairy Branch. 

184 Nov. 1910 Uses of Vegetaoles, Fruits and Honey 

185 Nov. 1910 Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

186 Dec. 1910 Children: Care and Training J.J. Kelso. 

187 Jan. 1911 The Codling Moth L.Caesar 

188 April 1911 Weeds of Ontario (No 128 revised) J. B. Howltt. 

189 May 1911 Farm Poultry (No. 151 revised) W.R.Graham. 

190 May 1911 Bee Diseases In Ontario Fruit Branch. 

191 June 1911 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

192 July 1911 Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Tod.<L 

193 Nov. 1911 Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

194 Dec. 1911 Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

195 Jan. 1912 Insecticides and Fungicides. r R. Harcourt. 

(No. 154 revised) \ H. L. Fulmer. 

196 Jan. 1912 Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

197 Feb. 1912 Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

198 Feb. 1912 Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

199 Feb. 1912 Onions A. McMeans. 

200 April 1912 Fruit Jnlces L. Meunler. 

9fti Mav 1019 /Peach Growing in Ontario F.M.Clement. 

^ui May 131Z I pg^j.j^ Diseases L. Caesar. 

202 May 1912 Grape Growing In Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

203 May 1912 Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

204 June 1918 Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Soc'y. 

«06 Sept 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised). / Staff of Dairy 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter- \ School, 
making ( 

206 Nov. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) 

II. Dairying on the Farm Dairy School. 

207 Dec. 1912 Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

208 Jan. 1913 Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing/ J. H. Hare. 

Conditions in Ontario County \ T. A. Benson. 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


BULLETIN 209 


A Revised Edition of No. 155 


Farm Forestry 

By 

E. J. ZAVITZ, B.A., M.S.F. 

Professor of Forestry 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, FEBRUARY. 1913 


BULLETIN 209] [MARCH, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 

(A Revised Edition of No. 155) 


Farm Forestry 


E. J. ZAVITZ 

IXTEODUCTION. 

This bulletin has been prepared to assist the farmer and small landowner 
of the Province of Ontario to give more rational treatment to the wooded and 
waste portions of his land. 

Xo space is devoted to arguments showing why the woodlot should be cared 
for nor why waste lands should be planted. It is assumed that the reader is 
beyond that stage and desires to make improvements if they can be made in a 
practical manner. 

Through such mediums as the agricultural press, the Farmers' Institutes, and 
Experimental Union, much has been done to advance the cause of farm forestry, 
Many prominent men in agriculture have seen the need of conserving a portion 
of our woodlands and re-planting the non-agricultural soil, which should never 
have been denuded. 

Owing to the peculiar nature of a forest crop, in that it takes so long from 
the planting to the hanest, the individual is very liable to shirk his responsi- 
bility. It has been found in the older countries of Europe that Forestry must 
have the aid and supervision of the State if anything like a rational policy is to 
exist. It is fitting that the farmer should receive all possible assistance in im- 
proving conditions which will in many cases benefit posterity more than the 
present generation. 

An endeavor has been made to make this publication practical for the 
farmer, and as far as possible technical language has been avoided. Various 
things have been suggested which might not be practical for the large landowner. 
However, the farmer is especially fitted to carry out work as outlined in tliese 
pages, as he has a knowledge of plant life in relation to the soil ; he has the 
equipment for such work and he can personally superintend and give it future 
inspection. 


LIST OF FOEEST TEEES IN ONTAEIO. 

Most species of our native trees have synonymous names varying with locality. 
An example of this is the common maple of Ontario, which is called Sugar Maple, 
Eock Maple, and Hard Maple. To avoid confusion in this publication it is neces- 
sary to agree upon some common name. 

Canadian and American species have been given the vernacular and scientific 
names adopted by Bulletin ISTo. 17, of the Division of Forestry, IT. S. Department 


of Agriculture. The names adopted in Bulletin IT are in almost every case 
known in Ontario : so it has been felt advisable to conform to this standard. One 
exception is the Hornbeam (Ostrya virgimana), which in Ontario is commonly 

called Ironwood. 

The adopted names are given in large type with the synonymous names in par- 
entheses. 

TREES IXDIGEXOrS TO ONTARIO. 
Scientific Xame. Common Xame. 

I \BiES BALSAME^ BALSAM FiE. fBalsam; Canada Balsam.) 

■">' \cER >-EGrxDO (Negundo aceroides) Box Eldek. (Ash-leaved Maple; Cut-leaved 

Maple; Xegundo Maple; Three-leaved 
Maple; Manitoba Maple.) 

3. Acer nigkvm Black Maple. 

4 \ceb PExxsYLVAXiciTM Stkiped Maple. (Moosewood.) 

o' \CER Ri-ERUM Red Maple. (Swamp Maple: Soft Maple; 

Water Maple ; White Maple. ) 

6 \CER SACCHARixrM (Acer dasvcarpum).SiL\-ER Maple. (Soft Maple; White Maple.) 

7 \CER s\ccH\RrM (Acer saccharinum) .. Sugar Maple. (Hard Maple; Sugar-tree; 

Rock Maplt?; Black Maple; Maple.) 

8 AiiELAXcHiER CAXADEXsis Servkeberry. (June-berrv; Shad bush; 

Service tree; May cherry; Shad-berry.) 

9. AsiMiXA TRILOBA Papaw. (Custard Apple.) 

10. Bettxa lltea Yellow Birch. (Gray Birch; Swamp Birch; 

Silver Birch.) 

II BExrLA. p\ptrifeba Paper Birch. (Canoe Birch; White Birch; 

Silver Birch; Large White Birch.) 

12. Bettla Populifglia White Birch. (Gray Birch.) 

13. CAKPixrs carolixtaxa Blue Beech. (Water Beech; Hornbeam; 

Iron wood.) 

14. CA.STAXEA dentata (Catsauca vesea) 

(Castanea vulgaris) Chestnut. (Sweet Chestnut.) 

15 Celtis occidextalis Hackberry. (Sugarberry ; Nettle-tree.) 

le' CoRXUS FLORIDA Flowerixg Dogwood. (Dogwood ; Boxwood.) 

17. CoBxus altebxifolia Blue Dogwood. (Dogwood; Purple Dog- 

wood.) 

18. Fagus atboptjxicea (Fagus ferruginea) . Beech. (Red Beech; White Beech.) 

19. Fraxixus americaxa White Ash. (Ash ; American Ash.) 

20. Fraxixus xigra (Fraxinus sambuci- 

foiia) Black Ash. (Hoop Ash; Basket Ash.) 

21. Fraxixus pexxsylvaxica (Fraxinus 

pubescens) Red Ash. (Brown Ash; Black Ash.) 

22. Fraxixus laxceolata (Fraxinus vir- 

idis ) Greex Ash. ( Blue Ash ; White Ash.) 

23. Fraxixus quadbaxgulata Blut: Ash. 

24. Gymxocladus dioicus (Gymnocladus 

canadensis ) Coffee Tbee. 

25. HAiiAMELis virgixiaxa WiTCH Hazel. (Winter Bloom.) 

26 Hicobia ov\T\ (Carva alba) Shagbabk. (Hickory; Shellbark Hickory; 

Shagbark Hickory; Shellbark.) 

27 HicORiA MixiMA (Carva amara) Bitterxut. (Hickory; Bitternut; Swamp 

Hickory; Pig Nut.) 

28. HicoRiA ALBA (Carya tomentosa) Mocker Nut. (Hickory; W^hiteheart Hick- 

ory.) 

29. HicoBiA glabba (Carya porcina) Pigxut. (Hickory; Bittern iit) 

30 Jugl\xs xigba. Black Walxut. (Walnut ; W alnut-tree.) 

31 JuglVxs cixere\ Buttebxut. (White Walnut.) 

39' JuxiPEBUs vibgixiaxa RED JuxiPEB. (Red Cedar; Cedar; Juniper.) 

33 Labix larictxa (Larix americana) Tam.\rack. (Larch; American Larch.) 

34' Liriodexdrox tulipifera Tulip-Tree. (White-wood; Yellow Poplar; 

Tulip Poplar.) 
34. Magnolia acuminata Cucu^iber Tree. 

36. MoRUS rubra Red Mltberry. 

37. Nyssa stlvatica (Nyssa multiflora) ... Black Gum. (Sour-gum; Tupelo; Pepper- 

idge.) 


38. OsTRYA \-iBGiMAXA HoRXBEAM. (Hop hombeam; Ironwood ) 

39. PicEA MARIANA (Picea nigra) Black Spruce. (Spruce.) 

40. Picea caxadexsis (Picea alba) White Spruce. 

41. Picea rubexs Red Sprlce. 

42. Pixrs rigida Pitch Pixe. 

43. Pixu.s -STROBus White Pixe. (Pine.) 

44. Pixr s RESixosA Red Pixe. ( Norway Pine. ) 

45. Pixu.s DiTABicATA (P. banksiaua) Jack Pixe. (Scrub Pine; Grav Pine.) 

46. Plataxus OCCIDEXTAI.IS Sycamore. (Button-wood; Plane-tree; But- 

ton-ball.) 

47. PoPUEUs TBEMrxoiDEs AsPEX. (American Aspen: Poplar; Popple.) 

48. PoPTTLrs graxdidextata Largetooth Aspex. (Poplar; Popple.) 

49. PoPULus BAXSAMiFERA Balm OF GiLEAD. (Balsam; Balsam Poplar; 

Cottonwood; Poplar.) 

50. PoPULUs DELT0IDE.S (Populus mouillfera) .CoTTox^vooD. (Carolina Poplar; Poplar.) 

51. Pruxus serotixa Black Cherry. (Wild Black Cherry; Wild 

Cherry; Rum Cherry.) 

52. PRrxr.s pexxsylvaxica Wild Red Cherry. (Pin Cherrv; Pigeoa 

Cherry; Wild Cherry.) 

53. Pruxu.s virgixiaxa Choke Cherry. (Wild Cherry.) 

54. Ptelea trifoliata Hoptree. 

55. Pybus AMERIC.A.XA (Sorbus americana) . . MotxTAix Ash. 

56. Pyrus coroxakia (Malus coronaria) .... Sweet Crab. 

57. QuERcrs alba White Oak. (Stave Oak.) 

58. QrERcrs macrocarpa Bur Oak. (Mossy Cup Oak; Blue Oak ) 

59. QuERcrs prixus Chestxut Oak. 

60. QuERcrs AcrMixATA Chixquapix Oak. 

61. QuERcrs RiTBRA Red Oak. (Black Oak: Spanish Oak ) 

62. QcERCus cocciXEA Sc-UiLET Oak. (Red Oak: Black Oak ) 

63. QrERcrs PALrsTRis Pix Oak. (Swamp Spanish Oak; Swamp 

Oak; Water Oak.j 

64. QrERCTTs PLATAxoiDEs (Quercus bicolor) . Swamp White Oak. (Swamp Oak ) 

65. QrERcrs velutixa (Quercus tinctoria ).. Yellow Oak. (Black Oak.) 

66. Rnrs hibta Staghorx SrMACH. 

67. Salix xigba Black Willow. (Willow.) 

68. Salix amygdaloides Almoxdleaf Willow. (Willow.) 

69. Salix flttviatilis (Salix longifolia) . . . Loxgleaf Willow. (Sandbar Willow.) 

70. Salix discolor GLArcors Willow. (Pussy Willow; Wil- 

low.) 

71. Salix cordata mackexzieaxa Mackexzie Whjlow. (Heart-leaved Willow.) 

72. Sassafras sassafras (Sassafras offic- 

iiiale) Sassafras. (Sassifrax; Sassafac ) 

73. Thuya occidextalis Aeborvitae. (White Cedar; Cedar; Amer- 

ican Arbor Vitae.) 

74. TiLiA AMERicAXA Basswood. (Linden ; American Linden; 

Whitewood.) 

75. TsrGA caxadexsis Hemlock. (Hemlock Spruce: Spruce.) 

76. Ulml-s PrBESCEXs (Ulmus fulva) Slippery Elm. (Red Elm. ) 

77. ULMrs AMERICAXA White Elm. (Soft Elm ; Swamp Elm.) 

78. Ulmus Racemosa Rock Elm. (Cork Elm; White Elm.) 

TREES INTRODUCED FROM UNITED STATES. 

Abies coxcolor White Fir. (Balsam Fir.) 

Abies xobilis Noble Fir. ( Red Fir. ) 

AESciLrs GLABRA Ohio Buckeye. ( Buckeyc. ) 

Catalpa catalpa (Catalpa bignonoides).CATALPA. 
Catalpa speciosa H.^dy Catalpa. 

Chamaecyparis thyoides (Chamaecy- 

paris sphaeroidea) White Cedar. (Swamp Cedar; Juniper.) 

Conxus coTixoiDES (Rhus cotinoides) . . Americax Smoke-Tree. 

Gleditsia triacaxthos HoxEY Locust. 

Picea exgelm.vxxi Exgelmaxx Spruce. 

Picea parryaxa (Picea pungens) Blue Spruce. (Colorado Blue Spruce.) 

I*ixus POXDEROSA BuLL PiXE. (Yellow Pine.) 

Psel-dotsl"ga taxifolia ( Pseudotsuga 

douglassii) Douglas Spruce. (Red Fir; Douglas Fir.) 

RoBixiA PSEUD.\CAciA Black Locust. (Locust.) 


Fig 1. — Sugar maple woodlot, showing good reproduction. 


Fig. 2. — Original pinery, now covered with woodlot of hardwoods, 

as maple, beech and ash. 


TREES INTRODUCED FROM OTHER COUNTRIES. 

1. Abies xordmaxxiaxa Normaxn's Fir. 

2. Acer pseudo-platmus Plaxe Tree. (Sycamore.) 

3. Acer plataxoides Norway Maple. 

4. AEScrLrs hippocastaxtm Horse-Chestxut. 

5. AiLAXTHUs glaxdulosa (China) Ailaxthus. 

6. Betula alba Silver Birch. 

7. Carpixus betulus Europeax Horxbeam. 

8. Fagus sylvatica Exjropeax Beech. 

9. Fraxixus excelsior Europeax Ash. 

10. GixGKO biloba (China) Gixgko (Japanese Maidenhair Tree.) 

11. JUGLAXS REGIA EltroPEAX WaLXUT. 

12. Larix europaea Larch. 

13. Morus alba (China) White Mulberry. 

14. PiNUS AUSTRIACA BLACK Or AUSTRIAX PiXE. 

15. Pixus sylvestris Scotch Pine. 

16. Pixus mugho Mucho Pixe. 

17. Picea excelsa Norway Spruce. 

18. PoPULUs alba White Poplar. 

19. populus pyramidalis lombardy poplar. 

20. Quercus peduxculata Exglish Oak. 

21. Salix alba White Willow. 

22. Salix fragilis Crack Willow. 

23. TiLiA EUROPAEA LixDEX. (Lime-tree.) 

24. Ulmus campestris Exglish Elm. 

25. Ulmus moxtaxa Scots or Wych Elm. 


THE WOODLOT. 


Introduction. 


The forest lias been spoken of as an organism, and the forest tree finds its best 
development as one of a eommunit}'. Soil conditions, leaf litter, vegetable mould 
or humus, undergrowth and the influence of the trees upon each other are all im- 
portant factors in the proper development of the forest tree. The woodlot, being 
small in area, often lacks protection, and there is great difficulty in keeping the 
above factors properly balanced. 

The woodlot is a part of the farm which in too many cases has been neglected 
and looked upon as of no real value in its relation to the farm. It has furnished 
the owner with fuel ami building material and frequently revenue by the sale of a 
few logs to the local mill. In many cases, however, the woodlot has not been con- 
sidered as being a permanent resource or a necessary part of the farm economy. 

In early days the woodlot was considered important as being a source of fuel, 
but when the farmer discovered the charms of anthracite coal one of the most 
evident arguments in favor of its existence seemed to pass away. At the present 
time many farmers in older Ontario depend almost entirely upon the supply of coal 
for fuel. Local mill operators have frequently been allowed to go through tlie 
woodlot and take out the best timber, leaving only a slash. The owner has felt 
satisfied with the ready cash that sucli an operation left him and quick returns is a 
strong argument in favor of denuding the land. 

No arguments are advanced in these pages to show that the use of the land 
for wood crop production would give greater financial returns than its use for other 
farm purposes. Neither will we discuss the percentage of land which should be 
under trees, as this is a question which must be settled by the individual owner. 
Many farmers in Ontario find that from the standpoint of labor and management 
they are limited in the amount of land which they can profitably cultivate. 


The following pages take it for granted that the owner desires to make the 
woodlot a permanent and paying part of the farm. 

Ground Fires as Related to the Woodlot. 

Injury to Soil. Fire should never be allowed to run through the woodlot. By 
burning off the leaf litter and vegetable mould or humus the soil is greatly weak- 
ened. As was pointed out in previous pages, the healthy development of the forest 
is dependent upon the humus condition of the soil. 

Injury to Be product ion. Ground fires also destroy the seed and young 
growth and make it much more difhcult for seeds to germinate in the future. The 


Fig. 3. — Effects of ground fires on wliite oalc. 


natural seedbed of humus soil covered with the leaves gives a protected, natural 
seedbed which is necessary for reproduction. 

Injury to Old Trees. Ground fires frequently pass through the woods in 
spring and by the middle of the summer the woods seem to have recovered. This 
is not the case, for usually large trees, which seem to bave bark thick enough to 
withstand the small amount of heat of a ground fire, are injured in a manner not 
at once visible to the observer. Tlio- heat from a ground fire, which it seems is 
too small to injure a tree with heavy hark. rrc(|ucntly affects the tree very ser- 
iously. The injury is of two kinds. 

By burning ofE the humus ami h'tter tlie soil is loft un])r()tected so that it 
lacks moisture during the dry season, as well as weakening the soil in regard to 


8 

food supply for the trees. Frequently the burning kills the shallow roots or 
leaves them unprotected. 

The living tissue beneath the bark of the tree close to the ground becomes 
so heated that it is either killed or partly destroyed. The first visible effect may 
be seen in the form of a fungus growth about the base of the tree. This parasitic 
fungus gradually weakens tlie tree, making it subject to insect pests, and finally 
causing its death, but the real and first cause was the innocent looking ground 
fire. 

Stock Grazing. 

Probably one of the most serious hindrances to the proper growth and de- 
velopment in the woodlot has been caused by grazing. There were many, a few 
years ago, who claimed that grazing did not injure the woodlot. 


..:.A2:r^-^ ■ . 


^:L'- 


•^r*. 


Fig. 4.— Showing grazed woodlot on the left, and protected woodlot on the right. 

Experience has shown, however, that in the Ontario woodlot grazing must 
always be injurious. Many examples, as in Fig 4, miay he seen in Ontario where 
the comparison of grazed and ungrazed woodlots show the result. While the 
injury is admitted by many, there are those who claim that the woodlot is of more 
value in protecting the cattle during the heat of the day and giving them pas- 
turage than for wood producing purposes. It is very difficult to compare the 
rental value of the woodlot used for purposes of pasturage and that of the woodlot 
used exclusively for wood production. One thing is certain, that to have a perma- 
nent woodlot, where conditions are favorable for tree groAvth the stock must be 
excluded. 


Domestic animals are frequently classed as to the amount of injury they 
inflict on the woodlot. From the standpoint of browsing the degree of injury may 
be placed in the following order: Goats and sheep, horses, cattle, swine, the first 
mentioned being the most injurious and the last being least. 

Injurious effects of allowing stock to run in the woodlot may be discussed in 
its relation to the soil, the reproduction of young growth and the older trees. 

Soil. While the effects of grazing on the soil miay be least noticeable, it is 


Fig. 5. — Tops of trees dying from effects of stock grazing. 


very important. Destruction of young growth soon opens the woodlot to drying 
winds which carry off the humus-forming leaves and greatly lessen the moisture 
content of the soil. Light begins to enter and xeach the ground, causing grass 
and weeds to sitart which soon develop a stiff sod. Trampling of the soil causes 
it to become impervious, thus allowing the water to run off' rapidly instead of being 
held in the soil as is the case in normal conditions. After these unfavorable con- 
ditions have come to prevail, the tree seeds find it very hard to germinate and 
soon there is no reproduction taking place. 


10 

Young Growth. The leaves and tender branches of the young growth in the 
woodiot are eagerly browsed hy the animals. Some species of trees are less liahle 
to browsing than others. The Ironwood seems to be particularly immune from 
browsing, so that in many Ontario woodlots that have been grazed the larger 
percentage of the young growth is composed of Ironwood. 

Cattle have been noticed standing in good, fresh clover, greedily devouring 
the leaves from limbs of Sugar Maple which were thrown into the pasture. Evi- 
dentl}^ they enjoyed a change in diet. 

Old Trees. The trampling of the soil, the desti-uction of young growth, 
which should protect the soil from sun and wind, and the formation of an im- 
pervious sod, all aid in lessening the vigor of growth of the standing, full grown 
trees. In this case the injurious effects are scarcely noticeahle to the common 
observer owing to his lack of knowledge as to what healthy tree growth actually 
means. The annual amount of wood production is fiar below what it should be 
when the soil conditions are in an abnormal state from grazing. 

Many woodlots contain trees that have not reached maturity, but whose tops 
are dying. Such trees are spoken of as being stag-headed. Stag-headedness is 
caused by lack of nourishment and moisture in the soil, a result of grazing. 

Weed Trees. 

Many woodlots contain a large percentage of weed trees or inferior species. 
Weed trees such as Ironwood, Hawthorn, and Blue Beech have gradually taken 
possession as an undergrowth. 

Everything seems to favor the development of these species. In cutting opera- 
tions these trees are seldom disturbed. The stock in grazing prefer the leaves and 
branches of the better species, thus giving these weed trees another advantage. 
The seedlings of the Ironwood and Blue Beech seem very hardy and vigorous and 
can stand a great amount of shade, so that they get an early start in the struggle 
for possession of the soil. When once the Ironwood has obtained a footing its 
dense foliage so shades the ground that better species cannot develop beneath it. 
In many woodlots from seventy-live to eighty per cent, of the trees under three 
inches are made up of Ironwood. 

Inferior Species. 

The question of the inferiority of a species is relative and depends on local 
conditions. 

Inferior species, as Poplars and Slippery or Red Elm, are often growing on 
soils which are capable of producing much better species. Then in some cases the 
woodiot has gradually become filled with Sugar Maple when it might be wise to 
introduce other species. 

Defective and Overmature Trees. 

The average woodiot contains many defective and overmature trees. The 
defective trees are of various descriptions. Trees with old fire scars, trees injured 
while young by the felling of neighboring trees, trees wantonly scarred by the care- 
less blow of an axe, trees broken and deformed by wind or snow, are all forms 
which should gradually be removed. Overmature trees frequently show a tendency 
to become stag-headed, and if left standing gradually deteriorate in value. Such 
trees are a menace to the surrounding growth and frequently in felling destroy 
more than their own value. 


11 


■■rsM- 


Improvement Cutting. 

Cutting operations wliich aim to overcome the above defects, namely, weed 
trees, inferior species, defective and overmature trees, are spoken of as '' improve- 
ment cuttings." 

In the farm woodlot all cutting for firewood should be made from such trees. 
It is not to be understood that it is advisable to go through the woods and cut 
down all the above mentioned trees without regard to the future of the area thus 
cut over. The first consideration should he to protect the soil, that is, do not cut 


Fig. 6. — White Pine, planted in open spot in tlie woodlot. 

down a tree or a group of trees unless you are certain that there will follow an- 
other crop. If you do not get reproduction the following season it is almost cer- 
tain that grass and weeds will come in and the soil will soon lose its valuable 
character as related to tree growth. Whether you can depend on the area repro- 
ducing from the seed of neighboring trees or whether it will be necessary to use 
artificial means can only be judged by local considerations. 

Thin Borders and Open Spots. 


The borders of woodlots become thin owing to various factors. This outside 
portion of the woods is more subject to winds and storms which cause windfalls, 
dry out the soil and blow away the leaves which should go to form vegetable motild. 
Frequently the border is overcut, as the owner does not trouble going to the in- 


12 

terior of the woods for his fuel, etc. In time the soil deteriorates, grass and weeds 
follow, and then we have the characteristic border which is neither woodland nor 
pasture. 

The development of large open grassy spots in the woodlot is usually due to 
the effects of grazing. The old trees have been taken out and the young growth 
destroyed by the stock until grass has taken possession and formed an impervious 
sod in which the tree seeds find it impossible to develop. 

The above conditions may be improved in the case of the thin borders by 
planting evergreens or coniferous trees about the border in order to form a wind- 
break. Norway Spruce and White Pine will be found to be two of the best species 
for this purpose. One or two rows of White Pine planted along the fences, 
especially on the west side of the woods, which is the side most subject to winds 
in Ontario, would make a sjDlendid protection. 

Open spots in the woods if covered with grass could be improved by roughly 
breaking the sod and allowing the seeds to reach the mineral soil. Such break- 
ing can be done with a disk-harrow or plow. In some cases where there is no 
young growth to injure, it may be advisable to turn in hogs as they frequently 
make a good seedbed by their rooting in search of grubs, seeds, etc. 

These measures are to be adopted when the surrounding trees are bearing 
seed. If there is little chance of such areas being seeded from neighboring trees, 
or if the owner desires to introduce better species into his woodlot, he may resort 
to planting. 

Planting of this nature may be done by using the young plants or by sowing 
seed. With the exception of nut trees, it will be advisable to use i^lants rather 
than seed. Methods of planting the woodlot are similar to the methods of plant- 
ing described elsewhere. While the general methods are similar, there are many 
bare spots which may need special attention owing to the small amount of light 
which is able to reach the ground. When l^reaking the sod with disk or plow is 
impracticable it is usually possible to break spots about twelve to fifteen inches 
square with the mattock. In these spots nuts can be dibbled or plants inserted. 

The success of planting and the vigor of growth depends on the question of 
light as well as the condition of the soil. In general the locations that have 
enough light to allow a development of grass may be successfully filled with young 
tree growth. 

The woodlot should have a definite boundary with a l)elt of evergreens espe- 
cially on the side from which the prevailing winds come. Too many woodlots 
have no definite boundary, but are surrounded by slash. Keep a definite boundary 
well stodked with trees and soon the woodlot will have every acre productive. 

Coppice. 

Coppice is a form of growtb in tlie woodlot which is little understood by the 
^average owner. Trees are reproduced from seed, cuttings, suckers and shoots. 
"Coppice growth originates from shoots or suckers developing from the stump or 
root collar of previous trees. The new shoots depend u]>on the root system of the 
original tree for nourishment. In Fig. 7, one-year-old shoots may be seen which 
have developed from a Chestnut stump. All native deciduous or hardwood trees have 
the power of reproducing in thi^ wav, especially wliere trees are cut young and 
at the proper season. Evergreens, with a few exceptions, as Arborvitse. never re- 
produce in thi'5 way. Certain species, as Chestnut. Basswood, the Oaks. Elm, 


13 

t 

Poplar, Birch and Soft Maples seem to develop these shoots more freely and vigor- 
ously than other species. 

In many woodlots, especially in the southern part of the Province, a large 
percentage of the growth is of this nature rather than of seedling origin. Fig. 8 
shows at least two generations of coppice. An old Chestnut stump aibout three feet in 
diameter has, growing from its base, a coppice Chestnut about twenty-six inches 
in diameter, and from this is growing a six-incii Chestnut which is the third 
generation. The twenty-six inch tree developed from the root-system of the old 
stump, l)ut in time produced a root system of its own which is now helping to sup- 
port the six-inch tree. In this case the coppice is developing before the parent 
tree has been cut. In Fig. 7 the coppice probably developed after cutting of the 
parent tree. 


Fig. 7. — One year old Chestnut Coppice. 


To obtain good tree growth of coppice after cutting certain considerations 
must bcigiven attention. 

Age of Parent Tree. Coppice from overmature trees will not produce strong 
growth, ^s the old roat system has lost its vigor. Coppice loses its vigor of growth 
by following the system too far, the tliird and fourth generations becoming weak 
and decrepit— -In many woodlots dwarf(Ml and stunted growth exists from the 
above causes. .; : 

Time of Ciiifing. Coppice is best produced by cutting in late winter or early 
sj)ring. Late fall or early winter cutting often allows frost and moisture to loosen 
the bark. The coppice shoots originate 'benieath this outer 'bark, and if it is de-- 
stroj'ed there is small clinnoc of shoots developing. 

HeigliJ of Sfinii/i. — In culling with a view of obtaining coppice, the stump- 
should be cut as closelv to tlic uToiiinl as i)ossil)lo. It is dc^ii-ablo to obtain result- 


14 

ing shoots as near the ground as possible. Oopi^ice which originates high up on 
the stump does not become vigorous. Frequently we find trees in the woodlot 
with the hase partly rotted, and such trees are often of coppice origin. In this 
case the shoots developed from a high point on the original stump with the result 
that as the old stump decayed the new coppice growth was left weakened at the 
point of contact. 


Fig. 8. — Three generations of Chestnut Coppice. 


Numher of Sprouts on Stuinp. As may be seen in Fig. 8, a great many 
sprouts may develop from one stump. It will be found that in a few years a few 
of these will outgrow the others. Not more than three of these sprouts should 
be left for a final crop. After the first year a large proportion of the poorer sprouts 
could be cut out, care being taken not to injure the others. In another year or 


15 

two the rest of the poorer sprouts should be taken out, leaving two or three of 
the strongest. Those to remain should be chosen with regard to their location 
on the stump, having thought as to what their future development will be. 

Frequency of Application. As was pointed out, coppice loses its vigor of re- 
producing after a few cuttings. When two or three generations of trees of cop- 
pice origin have been taken oif it is advisable to endeavor to obtain new growth 
of seedling origin. Nuts may be dibbled in where favorable spots can be found, 
or planting may be resorted to if desired. In any case the area should be grad- 
ually restocked with trees of seedling origin. 


Fig. 9." — Chestnut Coppice, five years old, in need of thinnint 


FOREST TREE PLANTING. 


Intkuduction. 

The rapid disappearance of the forest from southern Ontario has brought 
many to feel the advisability of reforestation. In the days when the for^t was an 
obstacle to agricultural development there v\'ere many hillsides, ridges and other 
forms of poor soil cleared, which would have been better left under forest con- 
ditions. 

As the nature of forest planting becomes better understood many will under- 
take this work who at present are deterred by the fear of cost or lack of know- 
ledge. Many confaise forest planting with park or orchard planting, and do not 
understand how plantations can be made within reasonable costs. In forest plant- 
ing small plants, with well formed roots especially adapted for transplanting, are 
used, and the operation of planting is much more simple than that of orchard 
planting. The following pages will endeavor to describe the various operations 
employed in forest planting. 


16 

Time of Planting. 

The transplanting or moving of a plant should be done at a time when it will 
least interfere with its growth. If the transplanting can be carried on without 
disturbing the soil about the roots and without subjecting the plant in its new sur- 
roundings to adverse conditions, the operation might be performed almost any 
month of the year. 

In the rough operation of forest planting the plant must be handled at a 
season when it is in a dormant condition. For the climatic conditions of southern 


Fig. 10 illustrates a plantation of Scotch Pine made about twenty-five years ago. 
This was a gravelly hillside of small value for cultivation. At a very small cost it was 
replanted, and to-day is a valuable asset to the farm. 


Ontario, the early spring seems to be the most suitable season for this work. 
The end of April to the end of May will in general be the safest time, in spring, 
to plant. 

Planting of evergreens may also be successfully carried on between the mid- 
dle of August and the middle of September. Where there is no winter protection, 
and the young plants are subject to the sudden changes, without a snow cover, as 
often happens in southern Ontario, fall planting may receive considerahle injury. 

Transplanting larger, ornamental evergreens is done at other seasons than 
those mentioned above, but this form of planting must not be confused with forest 
planting. 

Material foe Planting. 

The possibility of successful forest planting at a low cost depends largely 
upon the size and quality of the plant used in the operation. In reforesting, a 
small plant is used with a well developed root-system, as shown in Pig. 11. 

The small plant can be producecl at a low cost, and it can be placed in the 
ground with little labor. In handling and transplanting the small plant there is 


17 

little injury to the root-system, so that it has better chances of becoming estab- 
lished than a larger plant or tree. 

Care of Planting Material in Handling. 

The protection of the plant, from the time it leaves the nursery until it is 
safely placed in its final location, is very important. The roots of trees (espe- 
cially of evergreens) are very liable to injury from wind and sun and should be 
protected from dryiiig out. 


Fig. 11. — ^Common size of evergreen transplant ready for final planting. Note the- 
stocky tops and fibrous root-systems, which enable the plant to stand adverse conditions; 
White Pine on the left, Scotch Pine on right. 

When nursery stock is transferred from the nursery lines direct to the plant- 
ing area, the roots can be protected by layering in wet moss, chaff, or by the use 
of wet burlap. 

Where the prospective planter receives his nursery stock from a distance by 
freight or express, it should not be left lying at the office any longer than possil)le. 
The trees should be unpacked at convenient places on or near the grouiui to be 
planted. The plants are usually tied in bundles of 25, 50 or 100. In taking them 
out the roots should be dipped in water, the bundles opened up, and then " heeled 
in," which is illustrated in Fig. 13. If possible the trees should be "'Mieeled 


18 

gathers in the sleeve to the vanishing point, a feat of no mean order. Mrs. A. 
does not api^rove of French seams in shirt waists and she says all scams to look 
well shonld be of a good width, an inch or three-qnarters of an inch at least. 

When we l)egan the skirts, each one was given a pattern which could ije 
used for a 2, 3, or 4: piece skirt, and we used this pattern with a panel for our 
separate skirts, and are using it again as a 3 or 4 piece skii-t in the one-piece 
dress. We were given very clear directions for cutting the jianel and had no 
difficulty in doing it without the pattern. When basted up the skirts fitted per- 
fectly. We were shown how to pin the belt on and how to get tlie length, each 
member of the class doing this for some other member. Mrs. A. gathers the 
edge of the heui, distributing the fulness so a-^ to do away with all ])laits. 

The kimona waist seemed to be the object of the greatest interest and many 
were the conversations on the relative merits of a kimona and a waist of the set-in 
sleeve variety. We were given no pattern for the kimona waist, but ^[rs. A's. 
instructions, as in the draughting of the panel, were most explicit and umler her 
watchful eye there were no mishaps. The little 3 inch square which she used under 
the arm was a surprise to most of us, and being placed so as to draw on the bias 
will prevent tearing which has always been a serious defect in the kimona waist. 
When through we each had a shirt waist, a skirt, a one-piece dress and perfect 
fitting patterns for each of these, which we shall be able to use for ourselves with 
profit and pleasure; for surely we must be better qualitied after our course with 
Mrs. Altenburg to meet the difficulties that so often present themselves in dress- 
making. 

Extract from Commuxic atiox Deceived from Miss Frances Bevax, Axcaster. 

Our Branch his just finished the class in dressmaking under Mrs. Altenburg, 
and everyone is more than pleased with it. 

Each woman has such pretty new things and so beautifully made, quite 
elaborate silk dresses and some muslins, but one and all are satisfied, with the one 
exception; one woman who made a print dress has been so angry with herself for 
not making up better stuff. She was rather skeptical about the class and thought 
any old thing would do, but when she saw the lovely dresses of the others she wished 
she had something better. 

The class has done the Institute a world of good. We charged each non- 
member 25c. extra, so they should become members, and already they are showing 
great interest in the work of tlie W. T.. and attend tiie meetings. 


19 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

WOMEN'S INSTITUTES 

Application for Special Course of Lectures 1913-14 

Name of Institute 

Course chosen (Cooking, Home Nursing, or Sewing) 

(make X through the Course chosen) 
Numher who have definitely promised to take advantage of the Course, if arranged 

for 

Number of additional persons who will probably take advantage of the full Course 


Probable number who will take advantage of occasional lectures 
Prospects for class of school girls 


Place where regular class will be held . . . 
Place where school girls' class will be held 
Day of week preferred 


Accommodation for board and lodging for demonstrator 


Time chosen for Course, October 6th to December 13th 

January 5tli to March 14th . . 

March 16th to May 23rd 

(make X opposite time preferred) 
Remarks 


Branch President 
Branch Secretary 

Place 

Date 


Note This form to be filled in and forwarded to the District Secretary or Geo A Putnam. Su- 
perintendent of Institutes. Parliament Buildings. Toronto. Ont. at as early a date as possible 
If application is sent direct to the Department, the District Secretary should be notified. 


20 

Where hardwoods as White Ash, Ehn, Maple, Oak and Chestnut are being 
planted upon cultivated soil and where the planting material is cheap and the 
operation can be done at a low cost, it will pay to plant even as close as 4 x 4 
feet apart each way, so that soil protection may be obtained as early as possible. 

N"uniber of plants required to plant an acre in squares : — 

3 ft. X 3 ft 4,840 plants. 

4 ft. X 4 ft 2,722 " 

5 ft. X 5 ft 1,742 " 

6 ft. X 6 ft 1,210 " 

The area may be planted in regular lines if the roughness of the site does not 
prevent it, but if the land is broken by stumps, rocks, etc., it will be necessary to 
distribute the plants wherever possible. 

The more regularly the planting is done the easier it will be to find and pro- 
tect the plant and to replace dead plants if necessary. The following diagrams 
illustrate two methods of regular distribution over an area, although in ordinary 
planting the spacing must be carried out in a rough manner. Alternate distribu- 
tion takes more plants for an acre, but gives the individual plant more growing 
space. 


i 


Fig. 15. — Two methods of spacing plants — alternate and opposite. 
Pkepaeation of Soil and Methods op Planting. 


In Ontario, forest planting will usually be done on soils unfit for agriculture, 
where it will be impossible to cultivate. Forest planting on large areas as a purely 
commercial proposition would likely preclude cultivation, even if possible, as the 
initial expenditures in this work must be kept as low as possible. 

Occasions may arise when cultivation of the soil will be advisable where finan- 
cial investment is not the chief consideration, and where the equipment and work 
•tan be obtained as on the average farm. Where cultivation is advisable the land 
should be fallowed and the planting may be done similar to that described in the 
following pages. 

Planting may be done by running furrows in which the plants should be 
placed before the soil has time to become dry. If the soil is so loose that it will 
not "hold up" in the furrow, allowing the roots to be properly placed, then the 
planting may be done as in Fig. 31. 

In most cases cultivation for one or two years will give the trees such a start 
that the grass and weeds will not afterwards interfere with tlieir development. 
Some slow growing trees may need cultivation a little longer, but this question 
must, in the end, be judged on the spot. 


21 


On rough land or soil which would wash if cultivated, planting furrows may 
be run out as shown in Figs. 16, 17. 

These furrows should be as shallow as possible so that the roots in planting 
will not be placed below the good soil. The plant should be placed near the heel 


Fig. 16. — Shallow plow furrows for forest planting, run upon sandy-loam hillsides. 

of the furrow as shown in Fig. 17, where it will be protected for a while against 
grass and will receive some protection from Avind. 

In cases of running furrows of this nature on a hillside, plowing should 
commence on the highest point, so that rolling turf will not interfere with the 


Fig. 17. — Shallow planting furrow, showing plants placed on the protected side. 


operations. Furrows should not be run witli the slope or "up and down" the hill 
as washing might occur. If cases arise where this cannot be avoided it would be 
well to throw pieces of turf back into the furrow to prevent chances of washing. 


/w-Zv 


The plants should be transferred from the spot where they are " heeled in '^ or 
packed, to the planting hole by carrying in a pail. Usually the plants are small 
enough so that 100 or 200 can be carried in a 12-quart pail as shown in Fig. 19. 


Fig. 18. — Furrow on liillside, showing plant placed in good soil at (a), 


Fig. 19. — Showing the use of the pail in carrying plants along planting line. 

This pail should be filled with enough water so that the roots will be well 
covered. It is often recommended that the i-oots should be puddled before plant- 
ing. The writer has found that a satisfactory puddle can be made only when 
dealing with a heavy, clay soil. Ordinary soils, common to forest planting, settle 


01 


to the bottom of the pail and only increase its weight. Plants should be trans- 
ferred direct from the pail to the planting hole and not dropped ahead of the 
planter. 


Fig. 20. — Planting on loose, sandy soil where only the spade is needed, and where 
planting gangs of two prove most satisfactory. One man opens the hole, the other 
places the plant and firms the soil about the roots. 


^. /'] 


■^/ 


i 


Pig. 21.— Planting in loose soil. 


Planting can best be done by two working together, one preparing th'^ plant- 
ing hole, the other placing the plant and covering it. The planting hole may be 
made in several ways, depending upon the hioseness of the soil. In comparatively 
loose soil the planting hole may be made by driving in the spade and moving it 


24 


backward and forward as shown in Fig. 21. In some cases there is danger of an 
air space being left at the lower point of the spade, and this should be guarded 
against. If the soil is very loose and sandy, the plant may need to be placed in 
position before the spade is removed to prevent the filling up of the planting- 
hole. 


1 % 


m 


/,"! 


/ 'i 


ii\ 


Wif^^(tW&&M 


I 'I / 


Fig. 22. — (a) Grub hoe. ib) Planting mattock- (e) Sod removed from planting hole. 

The planting hole may also be made by using the mattock or grub hoe. (Fig. 
22). The soil is loosened with one of these tools and the planting hole can be 
made with the broad edge of tbe tool. 


Fig. 23. — Showing use of mattock in planting on rough ground with stiff turf. 


If it is desired to plant in rough conditions where the running of furrows is 
impracticable, other methods may be followed. Where there exists a dense turf 
in stony soils the mattock or grub hoes (Fig. 22), may be of great service. The 
sod can be cut off with the grub hoe or mattock and the soil loosened with a pick, 
or in case of using the mattock by using the picklike part of the mattock. In 


25 

very rough ijlanting one man can handle the mattock and prepare the phmting 
spot, another prepare the planting hole with the spade, and a third do the planting. 
Uowever, no definite rules can be laid down, and the arrangement must be settled 
for the individual case. In some lands it might take two men with mattocks to 
prepare ground for one planter. 


4- 6 


Planting of Nuts. 

Species which have seeds and seedlings subject to man}^ dangers if sown in 
rough, wild places should be reproduced by using the nursery plant. 

Many of the nut tree species, however, can best be propagated by planting 
the nuts in final position rather than by using nursery stock. Nut tree seedlings 
are generally quite hardy after germination, making it quite safe to plant them 
in rough places. 

The common nut trees growing in Ontario are White Oak, Bur Oak, Red 
Oak, Black Oak, Beech, Chestnut, Bitternut Hickory, Shagbark Hickory, Butter- 
nut, and Black Walnut. Of the above 
species, Eed Oak and Chestnut give pro- 
raise of being the most useful and prac- 
tical in waste lands, especially where 
the soil is light and sandy. Eed Oak, 
White Oak, Chestnut, Shagbark Hick- 
ory, and Black Walnut are found natur- 
ally in loamy soils. Bur Oak and Bit- 
ternut Hickory are found in the heavier 
classes of soils. 

The collecting of nut seeds need not 
be described, as everyone has had some 
experience. Care should be had not to 
gather such nuts as Black Walnuts too 
green. The safest time to collect is after 
the nuts have naturally fallen to the 
ground. 

White Oak acorns in the southern 
part of the Province frequently germin- 
ate in the autumn shortly after fall- 
ing. Acorns which have started to ger- 
minate will need careful treatment in 
handling. If the acorns are collected 
upon falling to the groimd and placed 
in a cool, dry place, there will be little 
danger of autumn germination. 
Nuts may be planted in the autumn or stored and planted in the spring. 
Autumn planting has some drawbacks. The edible nuts are frequently found by 
squirrels or other rodents before they have germinated. In wet soils and cold, 
damp seasons the nuts may lose their germinating power from decay. 

The care and storage of nuts needs some attention. The nut may have the 
husk taken off, although there is less danger of drying out if it is not removed. 
Drying out is the greatest danger to be feared after nuts have been collected. In 
no case should they be placed in artificially heated rooms. After collection the 


Fig. 24. — Showing root develop- 
ment of one year old white pine 
and red oak. 


26 

nuts should be spread out in some dry, cool place for a few days until they are 
well matured. Care should he taken both in storing and maturing not to leave 
nuts piled so deep that they might heat. While maturing they should be turned 
over occasionally. 

Seed may be stored by putting them on a well drained spot and covering 
them with leaves or hay over which may be placed a light covering of brush. 
Storing in a pit, as shown in Fig. 25, is a safe method. Layers of nuts (a) six to 
ten inches deep covered with leaves or small twigs (h) and topped off with soil 
(c) three to four inches in depth, provides good storage. A light covering of brush 
or hay over the pit will prevent washing of the top dressing of soil. A ditch at the 
side, as in Fig 25, (d), will give drainage. The bottom of the ditch should be 
well below the general level. 

Nuts can also be safely stored by stratifying them in sand. Stratifying seed 
is done by making a layer of sand and then a layer of seed mixed with sand. This 
may be done in a well drained trench or in a box. In the case of storing in a box 
the box should be covered lightly with soil. If left standing unprotected it will 
dry out and injure the seed. 


Fig. 25. — Cross section of pit for storing nuts. 


The preparation of the planting area will be similar to that described in 
previous pages. Where planting is to be done in sod it will be necessary to cut 
away a square of sod, as in Fig. 22. Planting the nut is very simple and may 
be done with a sharp-pointed stick' or dibble. With this instrument a hole is made 
in the planting spot and the nut dropped in. In loose soils the nut can be suffi- 
ciently covered by a stamp of the heel. When the soil is heavy it may be necessary 
to cover the nut by prodding with the dibble. The nut should be planted deeper 
in loose than in heavy soils. The depth should be from two to three inches, 
depending upon the looseness of the soil. 

Bed Oak and Black Walnut should not be planted alone to form a plantation. 
These species do not form crown cover or canopy enough to protect the soil and 
obtain the desirable forest soil condition. Mixtures of Eed Oak and White Pine 
will probably give good results, although our lack of experience with native species 
makes it difficult to advise mixtures. In many waste lands there are spots in which 
the soil is better than that of the general area. In waste sand lands there are 
frequently low areas where the moisture content of the soil is better than the 
average. In planting such lands where the White Pine is being used to stock the 
area, these spots could be filled with Red Oak. 


27 

Planting ix Swa:mp ok Marshy Land. 

Frequently there exists on the farm a portion of low or swamp land which 
has been cleared of trees, but which cannot be drained satisfactorily for cultiva- 
tion. 

Swamp land planting presents certain difRculties which make it advisable to 
give definite instruction as to treatment. When continual overflowing exists during 
spring or rainy seasons, little can be done in the way of practical planting. Before 
spending time or money in swamp planting the possibilities of future drainage 
should be considered. Many swamp soils, when drained, will become valuable 
agricultural lands. In exceptional cases, where tree growth is desired, mounds can 
be thrown up on which lowland species can be planted. 

In most Ontario types of swampland there exist many spots which are higher 
and better drained than the main part of the swamp. On such spots, in the 


Fig. 26. — Proper and improper methods of attaching wire fence to tree. 

natural conditions in Ontario, we frequently find White Pine thriving well. The 
better class of such spots may be planted with White Pine, White Spruce, Arbor- 
vit£e, Wliite Elm. Eed Maple and Silver Maple. The poorer parts of the area may 
be stocked by using cuttings or slips of Poplar and Willow. 


Planting Clumps for Protection of Stock. 

On stock and dairy farms clumps of trees afford valuable in-otociion during 
the heat of the day. It is a common sight to see animals retreat to tlie shelter of 


28 


trees which may happen to stand in the fieUl. In permanent pastures and even 
in fields occasionally used for pasturage small clumps of trees could be planted in 
corners on waste portions of the field if any existed. It would l)e necessary to 
fence in such planting and give it protection till the trees reached a size of three 
or four inches in diameter. 

Deciduous trees as Box Elder, White Elm, or Soft Maples, would be best 
suited for such work. Box Elder and White Elm grow fast, develop plenty of 
shade, and stand the abuse to which they must be subjected by the animals. 

PROTECTION Belts. 

Belts or rows of trees are frequently planted for protection to orchards, fields 
or buildings. There is no doubt about the advantage of such planting. Stock in 
protected barns will need less feed. Protected houses will need less fuel. Orchard 


Pig. 27. — Stock protection clump of White Elm and Box Elder in the background. 

or field crops benefit by having prottection. The drying winds of summer do less 
harm where tree protection exists. Orchards heavy w^th fruit are often protected 
so that loss from wind-falls and broken branches is lessened. Protected fields of 
clover, fall wheat, etc., hold the snow longer in the spring, which gives protection 
from frosts and loss of moisture by evaporation. 

Throughout the Province of Ontario the prevailing winds are westerly, which 
should be taken into considera;tion in planting shelter belts. That is, to protect 
buildings or fields it is wise to plant on west, southwest and northwest sides. 

The most satisfactory protection is to be had by planting evergreens, as Nor- 
way Spruce or native White Spruce. These evergreens give protection both sum- 
mer and winter by forming a dense growth down to the ground. Arborvitse, Hem- 
lock and White Pine are sometimes used in such planting, but the spruces are the 
best. 

Where one row of Spruce is to be planted, the trees should be spaced from six 
to ten feet apart. When two rows is desired the trees should be eight to ten feet 
apart in the row and the rows eight feet apart. The trees should be planted alter- 
nately as in Fig. 15. Where trees are to be planted as a protection to buildings, 
it may be advisable to plant a mixture of evergreens in clumps rather than a 
straight row of Spruce. This would require more space, but would have a better 


29 

appearance. In such planting the trees should not be planted too near the building, 
as they may become a nuisance when full grown. 

Planting material may be of two kinds. Small seedlings from ten to twelve 
inches in height, costing about eight dollars per tliousand, or transplants which 
may be anywhere from ten inches to several feet in height, costing fifteen dollars 
and upwards per thousand. If the prospective planter does not feel like paying 
prices for large transplants it may be of advantage to buy the small seedling or 
transplant and keep it a year or so in the garden where it can be cultivated till 
ready for final planting. Ten to twelve inch planits can be put in the garden in 
rows twelve to eighteen inches apart and ten to twelve inches apart in the row. 
Planting can be done as described in previous pages. 


r 


*Av ,'>■»'■» ««^ 


X 


^i^ • V ■" f. 


Fig. 28. — Protection belt sheltering peach orchard. 


Planting Along Permanent Fences. 

The question of securing fence posts at a reasonable rate and their short 
life after being placed in the ground is a problem confronting the agriculturist in 
Ontario. One solution of the problem may be found in planting!- trees along per- 
manent fences. In a short time it will be possible to attaeli Ibe wires to these 
trees. 

The trees can be planted every sixteen feet or even every eight feet as the owner 
desires. Strong, vigorous plants should l)e chosen for such work, and in case of using 
evergreens, transplants should be used as the fence lines are frequently filled with 
dense grass and weeds which will endanger the young plant. More attention can 
be given the making of planting holes and the actual planting than in the case 
of waste land planting. Where a rail fence now exists and there is no chance to 
cultivate, the planting hole should be made by culling away a large sod nl)ont two 


30 

feet square, as in Fig. 22. Ocasionally it may be practical to cultivate a strip 
four to six feet wide along a fence which can he moved a few feet after the trees 
have grown. Preparation of this strip by summer fallowing will give results in 
future tree growth which will repay the effort. Whether planting is done in 
planting holes or on a prepared strip, future cultivation will give best results. 
This cultivation should be carried on for two years at least — longer will pay — until 
the trees have become well established. It will be an advantage to mulch the tree* 
with grass or old manure. The trees should be inspected during the summer to 
see that weeds, etc., do not overshadow them. In case the owner does not want 
large trees along cultivated fields, the firsf planting can be done every sixteen feet 
and a few years later trees can be planted between. AYlien the first trees become 
too large they can be cut off the height of a common fence post and later the fence 
can be attached to the younger generation of trees as the older ones decay. 

The choice of species for this work must be given some consideration. The 
fastest growing species will be Box Elder, Hardy Catalpa, and Black Locust. In 
the southern portions of the Province and in the best classes of fresh, moist soils 
Hardy Catalpa may prove valuable for this purpose. Black Locust will grow on 
the poorest of locations and will be of more general value than Hardy Catalpa. 
Sugar Maple may be employed in this work, although the growth w^ill be slower 
than the preceding species and it requires very good soil. Some may desire to plant 
nut-producing trees so that a return may be had from nut crops. Black Walnut. 
Shag-bark Hickory, and Chestnut would be the most valuable in this case. The 
Chestnut would grow on the lighter soils, while the Black Walnut should be planted 
in good, rich soil. If evergreens are desired. ?^orway Spruce, White Spruce, Larch 
and ArborvitiE will give best results. The Arborvitse should be placed in moist soil, 
while Larch will stand dry, poor locations. 

In placing wire on trees, care should be taken not to injure the tree more than 
necessary. Fig. 26 shows two methods common in Ontario. Where the strip of 
wood is used in which to place staples, the tree gradually forces the strip over the 
head of the nail and in time it may be necessary to put in new nails. As a rule, 
large bolts or heavy spikes are used to fasten this strip to the tree. The use of 
such large fastenings is unnecessary and usually a much smaller nail will hold just 
as well. For an inch and a half strip two and a half inch nails are sufficiently 
large. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. 


Serial 
No. Date. 


167 


Oct. 


1908 


168 


Oct. 


1908 


169 


Feb. 


1909 


170 


Mar. 


1909 


Title. 


Author, 


171 April 1909 


172 May 1909 

173 Oct. 1909 

174 Dec. ~ 1909 

175 Dec. 1909 

176 Dec. 1909 


177 


Dec. 


1909 


178 


Dec. 


1909 


179 


Feb. 


1910 


180 


April 


1910 


181 


June 


1910 


182 


July 


1910 


183 


Aug. 


1910 


184 


Nov. 


1910 


185 


Nov. 


1910 


186 


Dec. 


1910 


187 


Jan. 


1911 


188 


April 


1911 


189 


May 


1911 


190 


May 


1911 


191 


June 


1911 


192 


July 


1911 


193 


Nov. 


1911 


194 


Dec. 


1911 


195 


Jan. 


1912 


196 


Jan. 


1912 


197 


Feb. 


1912 


198 


Feb. 


1912 


199 


Feb. 


1912 


200 


April 


1912 


201 


May 


1912 


202 


May 


1912 


203 


May 


1912 


204 


June 


1912 


205 


Sept. 


1912 


206 Nov. 1912 

207 Dec. 1912 

208 Jan. 1913 

209 March 1913 


,,r.^ , r, ,Tr ,, ,» • X mi. I J- W. Mitchell. 

Mitchell-Walker Moisture Test < ^ q talker. 

The Perennial Sow Thistle and some other 

Weed Pests J- E. Howltt. 

Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- f S. F. Edwards, 

gen Accumulation in the Leguminosse . . \ B. Barlow. 

•»T-i. 1- 11 -rrr n m 4. T, ^.^■^ ( J- W. Mitchell. 

Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle j ^ q Walker 

r Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Bethune. 

1 Fungus Diseases Affecting Vegetables . . . . | j' -yy Ealtham, 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) ... Dairy School. 

Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay? W. H, Day. 

Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees D- H. Jones. 

^ ._,.„- , f H. L. Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash | l. Caesar. 

Character and Treatment of Swamp or j W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils \ A. E. Slater. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 

(No. 147 revised) Fruit Ex. Stations. 

Flour and Breadmaking | ^ A^^Purdy. 

The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch. 

Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Graham. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised | ^ L^Fulm^r 

Tomatoes , A. G. Turney. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario '. Morley Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

Onions A. McMeans. 

Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

J Peach Diseases F. M. Clement. 

( Peach Growing in Ontario L. Caesar. 

Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revftt. 

Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . ( 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making J Staff of Dairy School. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . 1 Dairy School. 

Part IL Dairying on the Farm I 

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm .' R. R. Graham. 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions / i* ?• J*^*"®- 

\ T. A. Benson. 

Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J Zavitz 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 


BULLETIN 210 


Strawberry Culture 


AND 


The Red Raspberry 


By 

F. M. CLEMENT, B.S.A. 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, MARCH. 1913 


BULLETIN 210J [MARCH, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

. FRUIT BRANCH 

Strawberry Culture 

F. M. Clement 

The object of this bulletin is not to attempt any technical description of the 
strawberry from a botanical point of view, or discuss methods of improvement or 
selection, but to sum up in a simple, practical manner the methods of culture as 
practised by the most successful growers in the Province. The writer has had 
the opportunity of not only gromng strawberries commercially and observing the 
methods practised on the nearby farms, but has visited the sections of the Pro- 
vince that have, an established reputation and observed the methods practised there. 

The strawberry, unlike our tree fruits, is not limited to any narrow range 
of territory, but is found both growing wild and in the gardens in the coldest and 
warmes't parts of the Province. The comparative ease with which the plant is 
cultivated, and the high quality of the fruit, both for canning and dessert, make 
it a general favorite No kitchen garden is complete without its few rows. It is 
the first fruit to ripen in the spring, and just at a time when fresh fruit is most 
relished. The season opens about the middle of June, with the earliest varieties 
and continues from four to six weeks, depending on the weather, and especially 
the rainfall. But while it is grown everywhere for home use, it is the commercial 
side that we are lat present most interested in, because the methods in vogue in the 
commercial plantings can readily be copied into the gardens. On the other hand, 
the commercial plantation is no place for the fads of some small gardeners. In 
some few sections of the Province a number of growers have given intensive cultiva- 
tion their careful attention, and years of successful experience have put them in 
the foremost rank as specialists in their line. It is to these men that we must 
look for the newest ideas, and it is to them that the writer extends his sincerest 
thanks for the valuable assistance given him at different times. Also in some few 
instances the writer has copied paragraphs from other bulletins, because his own 
experience and observation's did not cover the point in question, but in every case 
credit has been given to the author. 

Location and Soil. — Almost any location on the farm will do for straw- 
l)erries, provided the soil is suitable. A warm southern slope is, however, to be 
preferred for early fruit, if it is sufficiently protected (perhaps I should say 
exposed) to be free from eiarly spring frosts or frosts during the blossoming season. 
The blossoming season is, liowever, to some extent at least, under the control of 
the grower, as it may be delayed for a few days or a week by not removing the 
winter mulch from the rows until growth has started, or until the plants begin to 
suffer from the cover. A warm southern slope is on the other hand not conducive 
to the greatest quantity because of the \\'arm winds and drying sun during the 


picking season. If, however, the soil is fairly retentive of moisture there is no 
serious objection to such a slope. 

The soil factor is decidedly important, because, while the berry is grown on 
a great variety of soils, from the lightest sau'de to the heaviest clays, it naturally 
prefers a deep, warm sand loam, that is retentive of moisture. Whether such a 
soil can he miade too rich or not is a disputed point. The writer does not believe 
it- can, provided the cultural methods are intensive, and especially where straw- 
berries are grown as a regular crop and have a place in the rotation. But the 
fertilizers applied must be balanced. At the same time, while maximum crops 
might be expected under such ideal conditions it must not be supposed that other 


The Type of Plant Necessary for a Large Yield. 


soils will not produce profitably. Even a light sand may be made to yield good 
returns by the application of large quantities of farmyard manure. The problem 
is as mucii one of moisture retention as of fertility. Fiarmyard manure and com- 
mercial fertilizers may be applied in large quantities, at the Avill of the grower, 
but for the water supply, except where irrigation plants have been installed, we 
are entirely dependent on nature. The same facts apply to a olay soil, except 
that when intelligent cultural methods are exercised, commercial fertilizers are 
not required to such a large extent. Farmyard manure, however, instead of tending 
to make the clay hea\'ier as it does the sand, makes it lighter and easier to cultivate 
and in this way more retentive of moistuTe. Very heavy applications of farmyard 


manure are someitimes desirable on both sand and clay, thirty to forty tons per 
acre not being considered too heavy. 

While plenty of moisture is very desirable, standing water is very harmful. 
Strawberry plants are always weakened by being under water, even for a few 
hours, and m'any times they do not survive the shock. A water-logged or puddled 
soil is not desirable for the same reason that it is not desirable for other plants. 

In the experience of the writer the fruit from the clay sioils is sweetest, but 
comiparatively smaller tban the fruit from tbe lighter soils. Generally also the 
picking season is about one week shorter. 

Underdraimage will improve most soils for the production of strawberries 
and especially clay soils that are inclined to puddle. 

Preparation of the Soil. — Begin to prepare the land at least one year 
previous to planting. If the field is in sod fall plow and grow a crop of corn, 
potatoes or roots. A heavy applioation of farmyard manure may be applied for 
this crop, because then an opportunity is afforded to free the soil from any weed 
seeds th'at miay be added with the manure. Fall plow again, and if a second 
dressing of manure is to he applied, let it be either in late fall or in ^vinter. The 
manure wnll then work into the soil much better. Any manure that is applied 
when the field is being prepared for the plants in the spring should be well 
rotied, because strawy manure tends to loosen and dry out the soil, especially if 
the season is unfavorable. In most cases it is not advisable to use a sod at all, 
especially if it is inclined to be tough from age. Strawberries, like other crops, 
should 1)0 in a regular place in a rotation. The grower then knows what is com- 
ing and begins to prepare the ground much in advance of the crop. A good one 
year clover sod is the choice next to a well-manured piece of land that has been 
under cultivation several years. This should be fall plowed and manured in the 
winter. The only serious objection lies in the fact that such lands are often 
infested with White Grubs. A two-year sod or older is even less desirable than a 
one year. 

Bone meaj, muriate of potash or wood ashes may be added with the final 
cultivation before planting. Cultivate thoroughly about two and a half or three 
inches deep so that all manure is thoroughly incorporated with the soil. The soil 
cannot be in too fine tilth for the plants. Land that is infested with couch grass, 
chickweed or any other serious pes(t should not be used. 

Marking.- — The marking out of the field is accoanplished in various ways 
as the marking depends on the manner in which the plants are to be set. The old 
way of plowing a furrow, spreading the roots of the plants on the bottom or against 
the side of the furrow and covering by hand is no longer largely practised by the 
best growers. A field marker, such as is used for corn, but set the proper ^vidth, 
is the quickest way. There is no necessity of marking deeply. If the soil is 
somewhat dry on top rolling ahead of the marker with a land roller will tend 
to bring the moisture to the surface and fewer plants will be lost if set in moist 
soil. Do not roll a clay that is likely to pack. The cultivator must, however, follow 
the planting as soon as possible, and as close to the plants as posisible, without 
covering, to check evaporation. 

The distance of planting varies all the way from tliree to four feet between 
the rows. At four feet apart the plants are set from fifteen to twenty-four inches 
apart in the rows; eighteen or twenty inches is a good average. With three feet 
between the rows, the plants are set from two to three feet ar[:)art in the rows. 
This latter distance has the advantage of making a large number of comparatively 
narrow rows, when the plants have ceased running, instead of fewer comparatively 


wide rows. Eighteen or twenty inches between the rows is plenty space for the 
pickers to work, and in the matted row system the best berries are usually found 
on the outside of the rows. Then why not grow as many narrow rows as possible? 
The plants may be set in rows both ways. Tliis has the distinct advantage 
of permitting of cultivation, both ways until the plants begin to run. Time is 
saved in hoeing, of course, but an objection is found in the fact that if a plant 
does not grow, too great a distance is left to be filled in by runners from the 
nearest plants. All vaoancies must consequently be filled as they occur. The 
greater distances apart of planting are gradually losing ground in favor of a 
medium distance of about forty inches between the rows by twenty-four to thirty 
inches in the row. 


Hill System. 

Choice of Plants. — Plant only the best. Many growers are still making the 
mistake of setting plants from the edge of the now. In this way they unconsciously 
■select the last runners that were formed the previous year, most of which, because 
of their lateness in forming, have not yet developed strong root systems. Such 
nmners can not be expected to make first elass parent plants. It is much to be 
preferred to dig up all the row, the best row in the patch, and select from this only 
the best plants, those with large, white, healthy roots. Do not set the old black 
rooted parent plant or any plant tbat has been weakened ]>y disease, frost or 
water. The poorer plants can easily be distinguished by the dark and discolored 

roots. 

The strength, heallth and vigor of the plants may be improved by setting aside 
a row or two of selected plants to be saved for planting the following year. In 
these rows space the runners carefully; allowing from four to six inelies square 
to each plant. This will permit of a strong uniform development of crown and 
root. There is just as much individuality in the strawberry as in ilie apple. 


Ill some cases, however, it is not possible, for the grower to raise his own 
plants, and consequently he may have to purchase from a distance. Also 
new varieties are often shipped from a distance. For the information of those 
who may ha^•e to make such purchases I quote the following from W. 'T. Macoun, 
^' Small Fruit Culture," Central Experimental Farm, page 5 : 

" If the plants for setting out are obtained from a distance, they should be ordered 
to arrive as early in the spring as possible after the soil can be worked, and planted soon 
after their arrival. It is often, however, not convenient to plant at once; but in any 
case, the parcel containing the plants should be opened up when it arrives, otherwise 
they are liable to heat or dry out, either one of which conditions should be avoided if 
possible. The plants should now be heeled in in some place where the soil is well drained. 
Open a trench sufficiently deep to cover the strawberries well, and so that the crown 
will be just above the ground. Now place the plants close together, but in a single row 
in the trench. Another trench is now opened parallel with the first and about six inches 
from it, using the soil to cover the roots of the plants in the first trench. The soil should 


Narrow Matted Row System. 


be firmly packed or tramped against the roots so that the moisture will come into close 
contact with them. If loosely heeled in, they are very likely to dry out and the plants 
die. Other trenches should be dug parallel with the first two, if needed. By the time 
the field is ready for planting these heeled-in plants will have made new roots, and be 
in better condition for planting than if they had been set out at once." 

Setting the Plants.— Tiro plants may be .^^et in either spring or fall, but 
usually nothing is gained by fall planting. Unless the plants become Avell estab- 
lished and nuake .some growth there is a po.«sibility that a large share of them will 
not survive the winter. Spring is the recognized time. As soon as the plant? 
ha^•e developed tvvo or three sets of leaves they shonld be carefully dug with a 
fork, pruned, and set at once. Do not allow thicm to ^\Ti'lt. If the day is very 
drying cover them carefully vrith a sack or cloth as they are packed into the 
planting liasket. Sometimes the plants develop too much top before the grower 


is ready to transplant, in which case it is well to remove all but two sets of leaves. 
Many ga-owers do not pnine the roots at all, but growth starts quicker if they 
are cut back from one-fourth to one-third of the total length. A safe rule to 
follow when transplanting any phmt is to leave as mnch root and as little top as 
can be done consistently. 

Two men or a man and a boy are employed in each gang to set the plants 
and they may use either a spade, trowel or dibble. The spade seems to be the 
most popular tool, though the dibble is used a great deal. The man with the 
spade wailks backward following the marks and makes a three cornered hole by 
pushing the spade into the ground with the left foot, about three or four inches, 
shoving it slightly from him and then with his foot still holding one side of the 
spade pulling the top toward him. This makes a three cornered hole into which 


1/. 


M-. 


*• -^w 

'%^*^ 


The Wide Matted Row System Before Picking Time. 


the boy places the plant, holding it firmly until the spade is removed. The foot 
is then used to pack the earth firmly around the plant. The boy is expected to 
place the plant at the proper depth and hold it in place until the soil is firmed. 
This method is much superior to working the spade backward and forward, as 
it does not pack the sides of the hole or leave an open space below the plant. 
Also with a little practice it is much quicker. Great care must be taken not to 
injure or cover the crown of the plant when tramping. Also care must be taken 
not to plant too deep or too shallow. The crown should be even with the surface 
of the ground. 

The dibble is used in a similar way. It is a wedge shaped piece of wood 
about six inches long, which is pressed into the earth by the foot. It should be 
shod with a thin piece of iron or steel. 

A surer way of securing a stand, especially if the soil is dry and the weather 
is unfavorable, is to use a trowel as mentioned above. The roots are then spread 


at a depth where there is moisture and covered carefully. The method, though, is 
very slow, and is not advised where conditions are at all favomble to growth. 

A planting machine, such as is used for cabbage and tobacco in some parts 


Planted too Shallow. 


Planted Proper Depth. 


Planted too Deeply 

of the Province, might be used where very large areas are planted, but so far, 
to the knowledge of the writer, it has not proved entirely satisfactory. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation must be thorough and continuous. It should be 
begun as soon as the plants are set and continued till early fall or later if weeds 


Strawberry PlantinK:. 

start. The coming crop of fruit depends on the vigorousness of the parent plants. 
Early cultivation should lie quite deep, l)ut lessening as the season admnces, as 
soil dries to the depth of cultivation, and runners do uot set well when too far 
from moisture. They will scarcely root at all during a very dry time. Care must 
be taken also not to allow the cultivator to injure the roots of the parent plants, 
from too close deep cultivation: it is better when using unskilled labor to keep 


some distance from the plants and then loosen the snrface soil close to them with 
a hoe. Hoeing should be thorough and regular, because if weeds once get a start 
among the new plants and runners the labor is much increased. 

A careful man with the hoe can do much toward increasing the CTop. Every 
new plant formed by the runner should have a space of at least four or five 
inches square, and while it is not practicable to space the runners by hand the 
man with the hoe can do mucli to prevent crowding. If a runner is placed where 
wanted and a little earth put on it. leaving the terminal bnd free, it will take 
root and grow where covered. Many growers make the mistake of conserving all 
the runners no matter how great in number they may l>e. This, of course, is 
advisable where they are not of sufficient number to make a matted row, but 
if new plants average, as stated previously, one to al^out four or five inches square 
there is nothing 'lost and sometimes much gained by cutting out the surplus. 

The following quotation is taken from the Department of Pomology report, 
in the Eeport of the Ontario x4.gricultural College for 1910, and shows quite 
conclusively the value of the careful spacing of the runners; if one year's experi- 
ments as here quoted can be accepted as conckisive. 

The following table shows results secured in spacing strawberry runners by 
hand instead of allowing them to find their places naturally: — 

Bow Xo. 1. Row Xo. 2. 

Runners hand-layered: Runners layered natui'ally 

29 lbs. 3^4 ozs. U lbs. 1134 ozs. 

"The figures given represent the yields for thirty feet of measured row. Plants were 
set at eighteen inches in the row, with rows four feet apart. Runners were spa'jed to six 
inches in the case of Row No. 1, and evenly distributed around the parent plant to a total 
width of fifteen inches. A large number of surplus runners were removed entirely. 
Row. No. 2 was somewhat wider than Row No. 1 and, of course, contained a much larger 
number of plants. 

"It will be noted that these yields are at the rate of 10,600 pounds of fruit per acre 
from the plants spaced by hand, and 5,348 pounds per acre from those which were 
allowed to form runners without interference — a difference of .5,242 pounds per acre in 
favor of the former. The variety was Parson's Beauty. The specific reason for the great 
difference in the yields lies, no doubt, in the fact that the season was particularly dry, 
and the conclusion to be drawn is that crowded plants suffer much more under such 
conditions than those not crowded. In order to prepare for seasons like 1910, it would 
most certainly pay to take the extra time necessary in preventing over-crowding of 
plants in the row." 

The man witli the hoe is also expected, in the new j^lanting. to carefully pinch 
off all bUossoms as they appear at the beginning O'f the season. A plant cannot 
produce both fruit and runners well, and just at this time it is well to conserve 
all energies for the production of plants. 

When cultivating it is good practice to always culti'^iate the same way on 
each row, or the same way on either side of the row at each cultivation. By taking 
this precaution many runners are not disturbed that otherwise would be. 

All surplus runners' that extend beyond the required width of row should 
be removed either by hand or with the cultivator. 

Matted Row or Hill System. — The matted row is the system followed 
in all the large commercial plantings, because it has the distinct advantage of 
producing large quantities. It has been argued that l)erries of largest size and 
highest quality cannot be produced in this way, which may or may not be true; 
good fruit is, nevertheless, produced. In the hill system the plants are set twelve 
to fifteen inches apart in the row and from twenty-four to thirty inches apart 
between the rows, and all runners, as well as all blossoms are pinched off as soon 


9 

as they form the first year. This permits of marked development of tlie parent 
plants and the forming of a large crown or a number of crowns and when blossom- 
ing time comes instead of one or two average flower stems, as from each plant 
formed from runners in the matted row, we have a number of strong flower stems 
from one pLant whose energies have been conserved for this purpose alone. In 
this way we get a large hevry of excellent quality, but it is doubtful if tlie quantity 
])rodueed on an average is equal to that of tlie matted row. However, in the 
home garden or where there is a special trade at a remunerative price, the practice 
of hilling is not to be discouraged. The extra labor entailed of keeping the plants 
within bounds makes the system impractical in the average commercial plantation. 
Another disadvantage lies in the fact that the loss of a single plant from grubs, 
ice, water, etc., leaves a large space in the row from which no returns can be 
obtained. The individual plants also sutfor more in di'v weather because of the 
less protection to the crow.ns. 

The following systems of forming the rows are copied from " Small Fruit 
Culture," by Mr. W. T. Maeouii. They are not practical in extensive commercial 
plantings, l)ut are of value in the home garden or when producing fruit for a 
special trade. 

" The so-called single hedge and double hedge row systems are merely modifications 
of the matted row. The runners, instead of being allowed to form indiscriminately, are 
most of them removed and the rest placed where it is desired for them to grow. In the 
single hedge row system, two to four runners are left on, and these are placed in line 
with the row on each side of the parent plant. 

" When grown in this way the rows are two and one-half to three feet apart and 
the original plants about two feet or more apart in the rows. When the row is formed 
the plants are six to eight inches apart in a single row. 

" In the double row system, six runners are left to each plant in the row and two 
on each side of the original row, all about equal distances apart. Trained in this way, 
the original rows should be about three feet apart and the plants two feet or more 
in the row." 

WiXTER Protection and Mulcitixg. — If the soil is at all inclined to be wet, 
or subject to standing water, furrows should be opened here and there. Even on 
tiled land and land with an open subsoil this is good practice. Oftentimes dur- 
ing a tliaw in winter water collects in Low places and unless the furrows are opened, 
and sometimes even then, ice forms and destroys the plants. 

A good heavy row of plants is sometimes all the protection that is needed, 
es])eeially in the parts of the Province where there is a fair snow fall and the 
wintci- temperature is fairly uniform. But snowfall and steady weather cannot 
always be depended upon. A steady cold when the plants are at all protected is 
not S'O injurious as freezing and thawing. Strawberries, like wheat, will not stand 
this, unless there is a heavy top, and even then, some plants are weakened. 
Generally it is best to supply the cover liy mulching the rows with a light covering 
of Farmyard numure or straw. This covering does not need to be heavy, but still 
of sufficient thickness, ahout two or three inches, to prevent drifting and freezing 
and thawing. Straw will answer if manure is scarce. Sometimes straw is given 
the preference because it does not settle so heavily on the rows and tend to smother, 
especially if there is a heavy fall of snow weighing it down. The mulch should 
be applied as soon in late fall or early winter as there is sufficient frost to hold 
the waggon nicely. Xo damage can at this time be done to the cultivated and 
consequently loose ground. Do not wait too long, as the mulch is better under 
the snow than on top of it. 

Manv growers do not make a praclici' of I'emoving tli(> muh-h from the rows 
in the spring, hut I'alher loosen it u]) well to permit the plants to work their way 


10 

through. The mulch must be light in such cases. The better way is to rake 
between the rows all rough or coarse materials to act as a mulch there, where it 
will conserve moisture and tend to keep the fruit clean or free from dust. This 
may be done quite early in the spring, or about the time that here and there in 
the patch a few leaves begin to blanch from too much cover or protection. If it 
is desired to produce early fruit, the mulch may be raked between the rows much 
earlier or as soon as there is any sign of life or growtli. The early growth may be 
delayed some days by not removing the mulch, but it is doubtful if this is a 
desirable practice, except in special cases, such as when early blossoms are liable 
to frost injury or it is desired to cater to a late market. There is one serious 
objection to the mulch and that is, unless the manure, or straw, is practically 
free from weeds such a number of seeds are scattered over the field that it is 
almost impossible to keep the patch free from them. This applies even more 
strongly when the patch is to be kept for a second or third crop. Because of this 
objection many of the best growers do not mulch at all, but rather manure heavily 
before the plants are set, a.nd depend on them to make sufficient growth to protect 
themselves. It seems safer, though, as a rule, to mulch with as clean manure as 
can be obtained, and chance damage from weeds rather than damage from freez- 
ing. Also in some cases the rough or strawy part of the mulch is removed entirely 
from the field and the spaces between the rows well cultivated until the picking 
season opens. This method, however, is not to be commended, as it not only re- 
moves a quantity of vegetable matter that would make humus, but detracts from 
the quality and appearance of the fruit by exposing it to diist and dirt. 

Renewing the Plantation. — It is doubtful, in the majority of cases, if it 
pays to fruit a plantation more than one year. Weeds, insects and diseases, get a 
strong foothold, and generally the fruit is smaller and produced in less quantity, 
though some growers claim greater quantity. The fruit, however, ripens a little 
earlier, and consequently commands a high price, but the season is, as a rule, shorter. 

Some growers argue that since it takes the better part of two years to fruit 
a patch, it should be renewed, as the second crop is then produced in one year. 
At the same time it is admitted that the work of renovation must be done just 
at the time when there is a rush of other work, and at a time when the soil is 
usually hard and dry. There are many oases, in rich sandy soils, especially, 
where it no doubt pays well to renovate ; but since no comparative figures of yields 
and returns are available we must for the present at least, leave the point to the 
individual preference of the grower. He alone knows what is best for his par- 
ticular location — after some years of experience. 

There are a number of systems of renovation recommended, and not one of 
them is simple or easily accomplished. At hest it is a difficult task. In every 
case, however, the patch should first be mowed and raked, or if at all possible 
burned over. 

Cleaning by hand-hoeing, narrowing the rows and thinning the plants, is 
slow but sure, and has given good results. 

A furrow may be plowed on either side of the row, away from it, and 
narrowing it to about eight or ten inches. The remaining part of the row is then 
hand-hoed and the weeds unless in too great quantity pulled into the furrow. 
The whole is then levelled by cross-harrowing. Some plants will be injured by 
this, but with care a sufficient number will be left to reproduce the row. 

Again a furrow may be plowed on either side of tlie row and thrown on to 
it, and the whole levelled with a drag harrow. The plants under fair weather 


11 

conditions will then start afresh, coming up through any small quantity of soil 
that may have been left on them. The hoe must then he used to cut out any 
weeds that are left, to straighten up any injured plants, or to bank up any plants 
that have had the earth drawn away from them. 

A few growers recommend narrowing the rows to about ten inches with the 
plow, by plowing away and then filling the furrow with well-rotted fannyard 
manure. The row is then cleaned of weeds and thinned with the hoe and the 
whole levelled with the drags. Some plants will be destroyed by the drags, but 
the remaining ones enriched by the manure are expected by fall to produce a heavy 
row. In a favorable season they will do this. 

It is not necessary to leave all the old plants in the narrowed row as a great 
many growers do. Fewer strong healthy plants will make a good row by fall. 
At the same time it is not well to thin too much. Some have recommended to 
leave the plants as much as sixteen inches apart, but in a dry season this involves 
a great deal of risk; better leave the plants fairly close, and if too many runners 
are produced cut out some in the fall. 

Picking. — The picking and marketing of the fruit is the biggest problem 
that the grower has to face. Where only small areas are grown the necessary 
assistance can usually be obtained from the neighboring families or nearby villages, 
but when many acres are grown other provisions for handling must be made early 
in the season. The pickers must be ready when the fruit is. Generally on the 
best managed fruit farms there is work for a number of people from early spring 
till late fall. The strawberry plants must be set, tomatoes transplanted, weeds, 
etc., kept under control; and again, when the strawberry season is over, there is 
the old patch to renovate and raspberries, currants and other fruits to pick, etc. 
In many cases the grower engages one, two, three or more families of Indians 
and houses them in fairly comfortable shacks. These people, with a little ex- 
perience, make very good workmen ; but they must be kept busy, and consequently, 
if picking and general farm work is spread out well over the season the problem 
of assistance is solved for a time at least. 

Italians and Poles are used similarly, and make very good workmen, indeed, 
but are not so easily handled as a class. The women and girls make the best 
pickers, and when properly directed have helped many a grower out of a serious 
difficulty. 

Tlie berries are ready to pick when they are from three-fourths to all red 
in color. They should not be allowed to get over-ripe, which does not take long, 
esipecially if the weather is hot and dry. If over-ripe and dry they sour, and 
if over-ripe and damp they mould. There still seems to be a feeling among many 
growers that " strawberries are strawberries," and that there is no place for grading 
according to size, quality, etc. But such is not the case. Medium to large berries 
of good color and not over-ripe always bring a higher price than fruit of'all sizes, 
especially if it is shrivelled and "mussy" looking. Small, green berries here and 
there in the box, and some that are decaying from being left too long on the 
vines, always detract from the appearance. It is a safe rule to remember that 
someone is expected to eat every berry put in the box, and that previous to eating 
someone is expected to make them look attractive, and, lastly, that a good berry 
increases demand, while a poor berry decreases it. 

Why not take as much pride — a few are already doing so — in the pickino-, 
grading, packing and marketing of the strawberry as in the apple, pear, peach or 
plum? It is a smaller fruit, and very perishable, but when marketed attractively, 
is in great demand. 


12 

Yields and Returns. — We are many times asked coiicerniiig yields, as tlie 
prospective grower has heard of some almost fabulous quantity being produced on 
an acre. But the average grower does not get anything like the number of boxes 
per acre that is sometimes reported. The writer knows a number of instances 
where patches of one acre or more have yielded, under good average conditions, but 
no irrigation, four hundred twenty-four box crates or more per acre. Such 
patches, though not i-are, are exceptioual. Ahnut two hundred and twenty-five to 


two hundred and seventy-five crates of abo^e size is a good yield, and would be above 
the average, if the poorest of the growers were taken into consideration. The 
yield depends quite 'as much on the individuality and experience of the grower as 
on any other factor. 

Following are the fis:ures of two leadiiiu' horticulturists, aud thouuh figures 
in fruit production can never 1)e accepted as absolute they are given to show 
ap])roximately what is possible and as a guide to the prospective grower. No 
tW'O growers estimate yie'lds and cost* alike, and consequently averages only can 
be quoted. 


13 

By Mr. Eol)t. Thompson, Manager, St. Catharines Cold Storage and Forward- 
ing Co., in 1910. The price per hox has increased considerably since these esti- 
mate? were made. 

OxE Acre of Strawberries. 

Rent of one acre $10 00 

Taxes 3 00 

Management 50 00 

Plowing 2 00 

Cultivating 2 00 

Plants, 7,000 at $3.00 per 1,000 21 00 

Planting 5 00 

Fertilizers 17 00 

Hoeing and Cultivating (8 times) 41 00 

Winter covering 25 00 

Delivering 12 00 

Profits, over and above allowance for manage- 
ment 28 00 

$216 00 

300 crates or 7,20^0 boxes at 3 cts. on the plants $216 00 

By \\. T. Macoun, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, from his address 
l)efore the Standing Committee of the Senate on Agriculture and Forestry: 

Cost of Growing Oxe Acre or Strawberries. 

(6,000 boxes.) 

Rent of land (2 years) $10 00 

Preparation of land 4 00 

Fertilizers 30 00 

Plants 36 00 

Planting 5 00 

Cultivation 15 00 

Mulching 10 00 

Boxes 21 00 

Picking 60 00 

Crates and marketing 25 00 

$216 00 
Selling 6,000 boxes at 5c. per box $300 00 

Net Profit $84 00 

Varieties. — The choice of varieties for commercial plantings is very im- 
portant, and perhaps, in no otlier frnit have we sncli a wide eli'oice. Tn the leadinu' 
berry sections of the Niagara l\'ninsula the "Williams is planted almost entirely 
as the m.ain crop, while in some other sections of the Province this variety is 
considered one of the poorest. Some varieties seem to be adapted to sandy soils 
and very warm conditions generally, while others seem to prefer heavier soils and 
cooler conditions. A variety that does excellently on one fai'iii may lu' of a gi-eat 
deal less value on a farm less than a mile away, or iiiiU'cd, jusi owr ihc rciiee. i^aeh 
grower mnst select foi- liimsclp tlic \ariety that does best wilh him umlcr his 
special conditions and care. No man can select this variety or \ai-ii'ti(.'s for him: he 
must find out for himself from test plots, or rows, or experience. 

Strawhc'iiT tlowers may be either perfect or imperfect, deiu'ndiiig on the 
variety. Imperfect flcnvers are those which have ])istils only: peid'ect llowei's are 
those in which both stamens and pistils ai-e jji'esent. A variety with peid'ect flowers 
can fertilize itself, and no othci- \ariety need be ]ilanted near it, as fai- as pollina- 


14 

tion is concerned, but a variety with imperfect flowers must have a variety with 
perfect flowers planted near it or no fruit will be produced, at least the fruit pro- 
duced will be small and deformed. In such oases one row of plants with perfect 
flowers should be planted to about every three rows of plants with imperfect 


Imperftct Flower 


Perfect Flower 


flowers. Do not put the imperfect variety on one side of the field and the 
perfect variety on the other side, but rather mix them up in the above proportions. 
The following is a good list from which varieties for commercial plantings 
may be selected. 


Splendid. 

Beder Wood. — Perfect flower, early, plant vigorous, producing numerous 
runners, a good pollenizer, valuable on account of its earlinesfe. 

Michel or Michel's Early. — Perfect flower, very early, hardy, and on some 
soils very productive, largely planted and quite popular; quickly crowded off the 
market by the later berries. 


15 


Glen Mary. — Perfect flower, ripens in niidseason, numerous runners, and 
quite popular on account of its productiveness. 


Sample 


Sample. — Imperfect, medium to late season, large berry of medium to high 
quality, numerous runners, and quite popular on some of the lighter soils in the 
Province. 


Williams. — Perfect, medium late, hardy, numerous runners, fruit has white 
or green tip, good shipper and oanner, very popular, more largely planted than any 
other variety in the Niagara Peninsula. 


16 

Senator Dunlop. — Perfect^ medium early, large size, good (|uality, iiuiner- 
ous runners, at one time quite popular. 

To the above list we might add: Buster, Parson's Beauty, Ruby, Splendid, 
Warfield, Brandywine, William Belt, Pride of Michigan, Uncle Jim. 

It is not recommended for anyone to discard an old and tried variety that 
has been doing well for years for some new variety. It is much better to first try- 


Williams. 


Duulop 


out the neAV variety on a small scale, and then if it proves eipial to, or better than 
the old varietv it'may be planted more largely. Not one in twenty of tlie new 
varieties introduced proves better than, or equal to. the old established varieties. 

Stick to the varieties that are doing best with you. They may not be included 
in this list, but they suit your conditions. Change to the new varieties gradually. 


17 

INSECTS AND DISEASES. 

White Geubs.— White Grubs are by far the most serious pest that we have 
attacking the strawl)erry, because tliey usually do their most damage to the young 
p]a]]ts as they are set in the spring, by eating the roots. When damaged thus the 
plants turn brown and die. In such cases there is no remedv, except to dio- into 
tJie ground at the base of old jdant, destroy the grub if he can he found and then 
replant. 

The best remedy is prevention. The wlute_ grub is the larva of the June 
beetle, and lives and feeds in the ground at least "two years. If tlie soil is plowed 
am cultivated yearly or not allowed to remain in gnatss or sod for more than 
one year the larva? cannot mature, as such cultivation destroys them. Strawberries 
two years in succession encourages them. In any case strawlierries should not be 
planted on land that has heen in sod one, two, or more years, unless it is known 
that such land is free from this pest. Grow corn, i^otatoes, or roots and free 
the soil of these pests first. 

Stkawberry LExVF Eollee.— As far as is known to the writer this pest has 
not proved serious in Ontario, and only ojie instance is known to him where it was 
sufficiently troublesome to demand treatment. The pest, may be identified bv the 
damage it does. The larva^ fold the leaves by drawing the upper surfaces together 
and fastening with Ijands of silk. Tliey then eat away from the inner side all 
green portions of the leaves. 

The remedy is to spray with three pounds of arsenate of lead in forty gallons 
of water before the leaves are folded or just when the larva? are first noticed to 
be working. Eepeat again at intervals, but not when the plants are in bloom, or 
after the fruit is set. The 3'oung plants nuiy l)e sprayed at any time. 

Steawberey Leai^ Spot is the only disease kno\ra to the writer that is serious, 
and even this shows up largely only on plantings that have been kept the second 
and third years. Spraying wiih Bordeaux Mixture in early spring lias been 
recommended for this, and when c^arried (Hit thoroughly, brightens the plants and 
gives them a healthier color. The hest method is prevention. When renewing a 
patch for the second year, if possible, mow and rake off or burn all the old plants 
and weeds that may have collected. Experimental work has not demonstrated 
that burning the old plants is entirely effective, but it is the method practised 
by the l)est o-j-n^wers. 


19 


The Red Raspberry 


F. M. Clement 


The object of this Bulletin is not to give a detailed, botanical or horticultural 
description of the red raspberry, but to put into readable form a few facts that may 
be of value to the grower. The information was collected in the Orchard Survey 
of Clinton, Louth, Grantham, and Niagara townships in the summer of 1910, by 
conversing with practical men and getting their opinions and methods, also by 
observing the methods of the leading growers in Elgin and adjoining counties when 
District Eepresentative in 1911-12. In no case are the statements theory only. 
All are backed up by the best practices of the best growers. 

The red raspberry (Ruhus strigosus) is indigenous to Ontario, and grows 
wild in profusion in almost all sections of the Province. It is especially adapted 
to the above and adjoining townships, and grows wild everywhere in the woods 
there. The black raspberry {Ruhus occidentalis) is also very common, growing 
wMd almost everywhere, but is not cultivated as largely as is the red. Almost every 
farmer has a small patch of both species, producing sufficient for family use. 
These small patches were not considered when quoting figures previously and 
neither is their cultivation considered here. The black raspberry (black caps) 
bears fruit and produces new plants in a manner distinct from the red, ai^d 
requires different conditions and treatment; consequently it is not included in this 
discussion. 

Extent of the Industry. The marked growth of our home cities, the extension 
of private trade and the operations of canning factories have done much to stimulate 
the production of this fruit. It is not long since raspberries were considered only 
a garden product, but the above mentioned factors have operated in such a manner 
that patches of six or seven acres are by no means rare. The four townships 
to-day, including both young and old commercial plantations, have almost as 
great an acreage as they have of plums or pears. (If bushes between rows of 
trees were considered commercial crops rather than fillers the acreage would be 
greater.) Good plantations may be found in almost any part of the townships, 
but in the sections east of Port Dalhousie and both east and west of Jordan Harbor 
they are made a specialty. 

To understand why they are made a specialty in these two localities is quite 
an easy matter, but to understand why, though both sections should specialize, the 
one section should choose one variety entirely, and the other another variety almost 
entirely, is not so easy In the Jordan section the Cuthbert is the choice, while in 
Port Dalhousie section the Marlboro' is preferred. A few men have some of both 
varieties, but taken as a whole the facts are as stated above. This would seem to 
indicate that the Cuthbert and Marlboro' are best adapted to certain conditions, 
and soils that are distinct; or conditions under which one variety thrives best are 
not exactly suited to the other. Let us see, if possible, what these conditions are: 

It is generally conceded that the Cuthbert is of better quality tlian the 
Marlboro', though many do not think so. Usually, too, under the same conditions 
the Cuthbert is the heavier yielder. But the Marlboro' has the advantage of being 
a week or ten days the earlier, and this gains for it the top price in the market. 


20 

Where the Marlboro' is chiefly grown the soil is a little heavier and apparently 
has a little drier and heavier snbsoil than where the Cuthbert thrives best. This 
dryness is an advantage in producing the required earliness, although it can be 
expected to reduce the yield. 

Where the Cuthbert thrives best the soil is sand and sandy loam, very deep,. 
with sand or gravel subsoil, which retains the moisture and holds the water table 
near the surface. This moisture is a very considerable factor in dry seasons. The 
aim on those soils is to get a large, well ripened berry, full of quality, which selh 
for an even price throughout the season. The Cuthbert fills this requirement best. 
Both varieties are grown on the shore of the lake and both are grown some distance 
from the shore. No explanation is offered why both varieties are not grown largely 
in both sections, but in the opinion of the writer it is a case of the growers 


A Profitable 10 acre Raspberry Patch 


adapting themselves to the market demands and conditions, and becoming some- 
what prejudiced against the variety not best suited to those conditions. The only 
other differences noticeable in the two sections are those of the slight diiterences 
in the soil and subsoil mentioned previously, and the difference in the moisture 
content. 

Varieties. Cuthbert and Marlboro' are the only two varieties grown largely 
at present, but the Herbert is coming in very fast. At present this latter variety is 
represented by a large number of small patches only, but it is highly recommended, 
and in a few" years might be expected to take a leading place, because of its heavy 
yielding qualities and its extreme hardiness. Other varieties are grown to a small 
extent,' but are not recommended for the inexperienced. A number of them 
winter-kill very easily, or have some other quality unsuited to the commercial 
plantation, and consequently are not of the kind for the beginner to experiment 
with. 


21 

Ciithbert: Is the heaviest growing variety witli bright crimson fruit, small 
seeds, first class shipping and dessert quality; it ripens in mid-season, and the 
bush is medium to very hardy. 

Marlboro' : Is a medium heavy grower, light red fruit, ripening early, large 
seeds, good shipping and fair dessert quality; the bush is only medium hardy. 

Herbert : Is a goo;l grower, heavy producer, first-class shipping and dessert 
quality. The experiment stations put it first in productiveness, but some growers 
do not favor it because of its spreading hal)it ; that is, it is not so upright a grower 
as the Cuthbert and Marlboro', and the fruit is inclined to be a little soft. 


Cuthbert. 


Soils. The raspberry is adapted to soils of various grades, but in no case 
are they doing exceptionally well on heavy clay. They are best adapted to a sand, 
sandy loam or a loam. A foot of good sand loam with a heavy subsoil seems to give 
good results, especially with the Marlboro'. Moisture content is a very important 
factor; so important, indeed, that if the soil is not natui'ally moist, or if there are 
not frequent showers during the ])icking season, the fruit di'ics up on the bushes. 
The season of 1911 will long be remembered as an exani])le of this. When jdanted 
on a heavy clay the soil must he miide mellow by heavy api)licntions of baruyai'd 
manure. 

While moisture is important, standing water is vei'v hnitliii. As in tlie case 
of the peach, ilie soil must he thoi'ou^iidy di-aiin'il. till' pi'd'ci'icl : or if this is not 


32 

possible, first-class surface drainage will do. Any standing water weakens the 
plants, and, if continued, destroys them. Surplus water in the soil is equally 
hurtful. Do not plant on a wet soil; but at the same time it must be retentive 
of moisture to give good results. 

Preparation of the Soil for Planting. It is a very common practice to set the 
young plants without any consideration of what has been growing on the field 
previously, or what condition physically and chemically the soil may be in. But 
such indiscriminate plantings are not recommended. The soil that has previously 


Marlboro 


been well fertilized and cultivated for one year at least and cleaned of weeds 
invariably gives the best results, by forcing the immediate growth. A profitable 
crop is produced in one year earlier this way, and the labor of caring for the plants 
for that one year is saved. The effect of first-class soil on the young plants is very 
remarkable, and a number of patches planted thus now show, at one year of age, 
as great a growth as the majority at two on the poorer soils. 

A hoe crop of corn, tom^atoes, potatoes, or roots, well fertilized, is recommended 
as a crop for the year previous to planting. 

Plants and Planting. The best plants to use are the young shoots that come 
up in the fall after the last cultivation, or those that come up in the very early 


23 


spring if they are strong and healthy. Only the very strongest and best growing 
of these plants should be used, taking care not to transfer any disease from the old 
to the young plantations. Eeproduction is from the healthy roots, not the canes. 
The transplanting of the old canes, or even one-year canes, on the new plantations 
is not recommended. It is only the roots of these that have any value, as the tops 
die down every year. Also there is much more danger of transferring insect 
pests and disease when the old canes are used. The transplanting may be done 
in early fall, but spring seems more suitable. Early spring is preferable, but trans- 
planting may be continued till June. 


Herbert. 

Distance to Plant. The distance apart to plant is a disputed point. Much 
depends on the tastes and ambitions of the individual growers and the growing 
habits of the plants or varieties used. The Cuthbert and Herbert are much stronger 
and heavier growers than the Marlboro', and consequently must be planted at a 
greater distance. 

For the Marlboro' the hill system is practised almost entirely, and the distance 
is invariably 3 by 6 feet. This distance may seem a little close, but the best patches 
and those that are yielding the best returns are almost witliout exception set at 
this distance. Where the Cuthbert and Herbert are in hills they are started for 
the most part at 4 by 8 feet, but it is very seldom that either variety is kept in 
hills very long, as the heavy growth soon fills up the rows unless thorough and 
frequent cultivation is practised. Where the row system is followed the distance 
apart varies from 6 to 9 feet. On a smaller area, or where extremely intensive 


24 

culture is practised, the writer recommends narrower distances, but where land 
is more plentiful and help scarcer the greater distance is recommended, as it allows 

of cultivation with a two-horse cultivator or disc. A distance of 7I/2 or 8 feet 
is a good average for all varieties. The hill system is recommended, however, 
wherever possible because 

1. It saves labor in cultivating, and cultivation saves moisture. 

2. Sunlight can reach a greater portion of the plant, which is very important 

for early rij^ening and lessening of disease; also a diseased hill can be 
removed entirely. 

3. Because they are much easier to pick and there is less likelihood of leaving 

ripe fruit, as the picker can get on all sides of the l)ush. 

4. It enhances the quality of the fruit. 

When setting out the plantation the planting in hills is very strongly recom- 
mended, even though the grower may prefer the row system. By setting the plants 
from three to four feet apart in hills the patch may be cultivated both ways for 
the first season at least; much longer, usually. When this method is followed, 
from two to four healthy plants are put in each hill — three is a good number — 
and in two years' time they will have run together and filled up the row entirely 
if they have been well cared for and allowed to do so. The planting indiscrimin- 
ately from eighteen to thirty inches apart in the row is not recommended, as the 
labor of keeping them clean the first two years will be much greater than when 
planted as recommended above. 

Priming. In order to he able to prune a raspberry well it is necessary to 
understand its manner of growth and fruiting. New shoots are sent up from the 
underground root stocks during the entire growing season of each year. It is on 
these that the fruit is produced, or in other words it is produced on the new or 
one year wood. Sometimes the new or early spring shoots produce fruit in late 
summer or early fall, but this is never in commercial quantity. 

Cntting Bacl\ During the growing season keep down the new growth between 
the rows, by cultivation. By the time the fruit is ripening the new canes in the 
rows will be as high, and in some seasons much higher, than the old canes. Eor- 
merly it was at this season that the greater part of the cutting back, or removing 
the tops to the heights of the old canes, was done. Excessive growth hides fruit 
when picking, and sometimes it is so excessive that it causes much inconvenience 
in passing between the rows. But now that practice is being discarded by many 
of the best growers and the canes are being left untouched until late winter or the 
following spring. A few good growers still cut back, because it causes the plants 
to send out side shoots or laterals and take more of the tree or bush form ; also the 
picking can be done more conveniently when the new canes are thus cut back. 
But notwithstanding these advantages we have to face : — ■ 

1. The risk of a heavy winter and the freezing back of the canes where cut. 

2. The freezing and consequent loss of the tender laterals forced out from 

the cutting back. 

3. The risk of small, poor quality fruit on many small branches or laterals. 

The freezing back is the greatest risk. The advantage of not cutting back 
lies in the fact that: (1) Not being cut back no excessive growth or branching is 
forced out and consequently the bushes are hardier; (2) The tenderest part of the 
l)ush is the tip of the branch, and if these do freeze they may be removed in the 
spring without permanent injury; (3) The fewer good laterals sent out in the 
spring produce a higher quality of fruit, because they are fewer in number, have not 


25 

been ^yeakened by the winter, and produce the fruit nearer the main stem or 
source of food sup2Dl3\ 

There are some good advocates of both methods, and good patches under 
both systems of pruning; but in the colder sections of tlie Province, especially, it 
is highly recommended not to cut back till the following spring. 

The thinning out of the rows or hills is not usually done until very late winter 
or early spring. This is best done when the ground is still frozen or before 
growth starts, leaving only the hardiest and healthiest and only from five to 
seven good canes in the hills. A few more may be left in the rows but the canes 
should not be closer than six or eight inches, and the rows more than a foot wide. 
The grower should, with a little practice, be al)]e to space the plants fairly evenly 
in the rows. This work should be done sufficiently early to remove all insect pests 
that have wintered in the old canes. These begin to move with the first growino- 
weather. A great m^any growers remove the old canes in early fall or late sprin^y^ 
but in the opinion of the writer the spring is preferred. 

If the effects of the winter are not plainly noticeable at this time, the cuttino- 
back may be left a little later or till growth has started, when the frozen tips are 
much more easily distinguished, 'i'he earlier pruning is recommended, however. 

In the colder sections of the province, where winter injury or freezino- is 
common, the practice of tbinning out the old canes in the hills in tlie fall is followed 
quite largely. The canes, wliich may be from four to seven feet long are then 
laid down in the line of the row and covered with eartli. This method of protection 
is expensive, but gives fair results. 

Another method is to keep the young plants cut back to about eighteen to 
twenty-four inches during the summer. This causes them to send out quite strono- 
laterals and then the plants in tree form being quite low are protected bv snow 
during the winter. 

In the Niagara Peninsula, however, where the investigation was made, no 
protection is given except that which follows from good cultivation, manurin"-, 
and pruning practice. 

CuUivation. The cultivation must be thorough. A few days' delay often 
gives tbe grass and weeds a start, and wlien once they take possession of the rows it 
is a very difficult task to get rid of them. :\Iany of the best growers cultivate twice 
a week from early spring up to the picking season, and some cultivate even between 
the picking. It is best to cease cultivation with the opening of the picking season, 
or. at most, to give one or two cultivations later. This would be to clean up the 
patch, loosen the soil and give the young shoots, if they are required for planting 
the next year, a chance to grow. Loosening the ground between the rows after each 
picking conserves a great deal of moisture and is advised if it can be done with- 
out injury to the fruit and plants. Too late cultivation tends to produce new 
growth late in the fall, which is not as hardy as the older wood, and is consequently 
more likely to be injured bv th" winter. Many good patches have been severely 
injured by practising late cultivation. 

Fall plowing up to the plant and cultivating and hoeing the earth away in 
the spring as much as is required to remove the weeds and form a nnilch is 
recommended. Quite a number of growers ]ilow away from the plants in the 
spring as it gives a much better chance to remove the refuse from the row. Also 
this plowing covers up any manure or nnilch that may have been applied in the 
winter. The plantations of the best growers are not intercropped after the first 
year; the soil then has all it can do to support the berries and without first-class 
care and attention it will not do even this. 


36 

Ottawa Bulletin No. 56 gives the figures of an experiment conducted to 
determine the advisability of cutting back in the summer or leaving the plants 
unpruned. In almost every instance there is a considerable margin in favor of the 
unpruned rows. This is contrary to the beliefs of many growers, but the experiment 
shows quite conclusively that it will pay growers to investigate before arriving 
at conclusions. 

There are more patches suffering from poor soil than from soil that is too 
rich. But the first season — that is, the spring the plants are set — a single row of 
tomatoes, corn or potatoes may be grown between the rows of raspberries. Straw- 
berries are sometimes used, but as the vines spread out a great deal and require 
much moisture, and the fruit is not removed till the following summer, when 
growth has almost ceased, they are not recommended, though some apparently get 
good results. 

Manuring. The scientific manuring of the raspberry is just in the experi- 
mental stage. As a rule even in the best patches no regular method is followed. 
But barnyard manure is the standby of all. There is a danger when this is used 
in quite large quantities — say twenty tons per acre every year — of producing an 
excess of cane or wood growth. The general practice, where the land has been 
built up or is already in good heart, is to apply about ten tons per acre of good 
manure annually. This adds a sufficient quantity of humus and with commercial 
preparations keeps the soil in fair condition. Where the soil is poor a much larger 
quantity must be added at first. This may be applied and plowed under, either 
in the spring or fall or applied as a mulch in the fall and plowed under in the 
spring. 

Commercial preparations are gradually coming into favor, but it cannot be 
said that as yet any number of growers have reached a standard and are applying 
them in regular quantities. Various quantities are applied ranging from two 
hundred to six hundred pounds or more per acre. This is usually in the propor- 
tion of two pounds of bone meal or superphosphate to one of muriate of potash. 
No quantity of nitrate of soda is used. The growers depend on manure largely 
for their supply of nitrogen, because, except in special cases, it is much cheaper. 
The following is recommended for a yearly application on soil that is in good 
heart, and it will replace in the soil the quantity of fertilizer constituents removed 
by one hundred crates of fruit 

12 tons of barnyard manure, 

100 lbs muriate of potash, 

200 lbs. bone meal. 

The nitrate of soda cannot take the place of barnyard manure, but preparations 
other than those mentioned containing the same quantities of available potash 
and phosphorus may be used. 

Piclcing and PacMng. The picking and packing is usually done by help ob- 
tained in the neighborhood, but where the areas under this fruit are exceptionally 
large it is necessary to employ much outside labor. The Indians have proved 
very satisfactory workers where it is possible to get them. The labor question is 
very acute at times, so much so that in a few cases some berries have gone to waste 
each year. This fact would lead one to suppose that raspberry production had 
almost reached its maximum in the Niagara Peninsula, but the well-known law 
that '^demand draws labor" seems to work exceptionally well here; so much so, 
that though the acreage is increasing rapidly each year, the quantity that wastes 
each year is not increasing any more proportionately. 

The fruit is picked directly into quart boxes, and should be carefully selected 
and sorted while picking, as nothing is gained in quality and appearance by extra 


27 

handlings. It is then packed into twenty-four box crates for delivery. The days 
for picking cannot be fixed. The producer must use his own judgment, as all 
depends on the variety of berry and the weather during the ripening season. The 
ripe fruit must not be left too long on the bushes or the least wind will cause it 
to fall off and waste. IST'either should it be picked w'hen hard and green, as it 
greatl}' detracts from the attractiveness of the package. 

Careful handling is very essential. Jarring on the road to market settles the 
package and spoils the fruit. Throwing it into or out of the waggon has the same 
effect. The practice of filling the boxes well with choice red fruit cannot be too 
highly recommended. Do not allow the picked fruit to stand in a hot or moist 
place, as it soon spoils. 

Selling. There are several methods of disposing of the fruit, but the special 
order trade and the commission market take the largest quantity. This includes 
the quantities sold through the co-operative associations. The canning factories 
take a very large quantity where they are used for making jam, and at present this 
demand seems to be increasing much faster than the supply. 

Returns. Following is a list of patches showing the acreage, yield and 
returns as quoted to me by the growers. These are not given as an average, but 
represent some of the very best patches for the season of 1909. The figures are 
much higher than the general average, but show a possible average under good 
conditions. 


Yield Price 

Acreage. (Crates) (F.O.B.) Value 

1 125 $1 80 $225 00 

1 150 1 80 270 00 

% 75 1 80 135 00 

1% 190 1 80 342 00 

6 350 180 630 00 

4 350 1 70 595 00 

SVa 523 1 90 993 70 

4 310 1 80 558 00 

1 85 1 80 153 00 

11/2 40 2 12yo 85 00 

% 250 1 80 450 00 

1 70 1 80 126 00 

3% 350 2 00 700 00 

2 115 1 82 209 30 

1 20 2 00 40 00 

V2 75 2 00 150 00 

2 180 1 80 324 00 

iy2 200 2 00 400 00 

114 190 1 80 342 00 

1 75 2 30 172 50 

2 95 2 15 204 25 

5 200 2 00 400 00 

2 200 1 65 330 00 

3 75 1 68 126 00 

3 350 1 74 609 00 

1% 450 1 80 810 00 

2^. 200 180 360 00 

1 60 1 80 108 00 

5 500 1 65 825 00 

1 150 1 80 270 00 

21/2 200 1 80 360 00 

1 150 1 75 262 50 

Total. .681/2 6,353 $11,565 25 

Or, each acre in the above patches averaged 92.7 crates, which sold for $1.82 
per crate, or $168.83 f.o.b. 


28 

Diseases, 

Anthracnose (Gla'osporiunt VeneiiDit) is distinguished by the drying up of 
the leaves and the dying of the canes, especially at the tips. Small purplish spot^ 
appear at first on both leaves and wood, but later the centre of theiii becomes gray 
and sunken, giving a bird's-eye effect. 

Remedy : Control measures have not been effective. Prevent from spreading 
by cutting out and destroying as soon as noticed. 

Orange Rust {Gymnoconia Peckiana). This is a very serious disease, but it is 
easily distinguished by the yellowisih rust that appears on the leaves and canes. It 
attacks the plant at all stages, and though the plant may not be killed outright it 
is so weakened that it is valueless. 

Remedy: Control measures are ineffective. The diseased plants must he cut 
out and destroyed as soon as they appear. The least delay only allows the disease 
to spread still further. Spraying is ineffective. 

Crown Gall {Pseudomonas tumefaciens) . This attacks the roots, producing 
galls or growths thereon which causes the weaJvening of the plants and makes them 
unjirofitahle. It is the same as that which attacks the peach. 

Control : By digging out and destroying. Do not plant in the same field for 
three or four years. 

Injueious Insects. 

Snowy Tree Cricket. The only injury done by this insect is in depositing the 
eggs in the canes. They are noticed in rows from one to two inches running 
lengthwise of the canes. Otherwise the insect is beneficial, feeding upon injurious 
plant lice. The cutting out and destroying of the old canes in winter or early 
spring keeps it under control. 

Raspberry Cane Borer. The injury is done by the insect making two girdles 
around the cane about a half an inch apart hetween which the eggs are laid. The 
egg hatches and the larva bores down in the pith of the cane. This causes the top 
or injured portion to wilt and die. 

Control: By cutting off and destroying the wilted parts. Take care to cut well 
below the girdle. 

Root Borer. The injury here is done by the larva or a clear winged moth 
which bores in the root from the cane just at the surface of the ground. The canes 
in the spring appear to be winter killed. The damage is worst in the old planta- 
tions. 

Control: By keeping the plants healthy by exercising good care and cultiva- 
tion. Dig out and destroy all weakened plants. 

Raspberry Saiv Fly. The damage is done by the larvae of the fly, green in 
color, eating the tender green portions of the leaves, leaving only the veins. The 
fly deposits the eggs on the leaves and the larvae begin feeding as soon as hatched. 

Control: If early in the season spray the plants with two pounds of lead 
arsenate in forty gallons of water. If the fruit is ripe or ripening the larvae may 
be jarred off by hand on to the hot dust between the rows. It is not well to use 
the poison on the ripe or ripening fruit, because of discoloration. White hellebore, 
either dusted over the plants or steeped, one ounce in two gallons of water and 
sprayed over the foliage, is a very good remedy. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. 
No. Date. Title. Author. 

168 Oct. 1908 The Perennial Sow Thistle and some other 

Weed Pests J. E. Howitt. 

169 Feb. 1909 Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- f S.F.Edwards. 

gen Accumulation in the Leguminoaaj . . \ 

170 Mar. 1909 Mitchell- Walker Test Bottle | W. O. WalkS-." 

{ Insects Affecting Vegetables 

171 April 1909 | p^^^^^ ^.g.^g^^ Affecting Vegetables . . . . { J; ;^- i^^^^' 

172 May 1909 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) . . . Dairy School. 

173 Oct. 1909 Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash, 

174 Dec. 1909 Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay W. H. Day. 

175 Dec. 1909 Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

176 Dec. 1909 Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear ar.d Quince 

Trees D. H. Jones. 

177 Dec. 1909 Lime-Sulphur Wash | l.' Caesar^^^' 

178 Dec. 1909 Character and Treatment of Swamp or W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils A. E. Slater. 

179 Feb. 1910 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters Fruit Ex. Stations. 

180 April 1910 Flour and Breadmaking ■[ ^ a.^ Purdy. 

181 June 1910 The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

182 July 1910 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch 

183 Aug. 1910 Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch 

184 Nov. 1910 Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

185 Nov. 1910 Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

186 Dec. 1910 Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

187 Jan. 1911 The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

188 April 1911 Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

189 May 1911 Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Grahom. 

190 May 1911 Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch 

191 June 1911 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch 

192 July 1911 Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

193 Nov. 1911 Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

194 Dec. 1911 Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch 

195 Jan. 1912 Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised | j^ j pyjjjjer 

196 Jan. 1912 Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

197 Feb. 1912 Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

198 Feb. 1912 Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

199 Feb. 1912 Onions A. McMeans. 

200 April 1912 Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

201 May 1912 Peach Growing in Ontario F. M. Clement. 

Peach Diseases L. Caesar. 

202 May 1912 Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

203 May 1912 Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

204 June 1912 Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

205 Sept. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) .. ( 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making ) Staff of Dairy School. 

206 Nov. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revi&cd) .. ) Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm ( 

207 Dec. 1912 Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

f J H Hare 

208 Jan. 1913 Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions ^ ,p' a Benson. 

209 March 1913 Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavitz. 

210 March 1913 Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. F. M. Clement. 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 


BULLETIN 211 


Fruits Recommended for 

Planting 

In Various Parts of Ontario 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, MARCH, 1913 


BULLETIN 211J [FEBRUARY, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 

(A Revision of No. 179) 


Fruits Recommended for Planting 

In Various Parts of the Province of Ontario 


Owing to the continual demand for information regarding the best varieties 
of fruit for planting, the Department has found it necessary to prepare a list which 
will serve to the best advantage all those interested. The tendency of all com- 
mercial orchardists is to reduce the number of varieties planted to the smaller 
number, which will ripen so as to cover the season, and some have gone so far as 
to reduce their number of varieties even less, so as to specialize in those best adapted 
to their locality and soils. This practice is highly to be commended, and in the 
lists given, only varieties that have proven their merits are mentioned. The growers 
are recommended to choose those varieties which they may prefer, and not neces- 
sarily to .plant all that are suggested for their district. 

The general list has been prepared from the actual work of the experimentalist 
under Department super\dsion. The district lists have been submitted by the 
various experimenters and successful growers, and contain those varieties which 
seem to be especially adapted in the section for which they are recommended. 

The boundaries given for the various districts are merely suggestive, as it is 
impossible to define these definitely, one merging gradually into the other. 

There are many varieties not mentioned in the lists which may do well under, 
special conditions, but are not generally considered so desirable as those mentioned. 

Finally, in selecting a list of varieties from those recommended in this pub- 
lication, we would draw the attention of the grower to the importance of limiting 
the number of varieties as closely as possible, and also to study his soil and the 
market conditions. This can easily be done by going to one or two of the growers 
in his section and asking him for his opinion as to most successful varieties. It 
cannot be too highly impressed upon one's mind that the effect of soil conditions 
on varieties is very important, and cannot be watched too closely if the greatest 
results are aimed at. The markets to which one intends to cater should ever be 
borne in mind, as the days are fast ending when the grower can promiscuously 
pick his fruit and sliip to any commission house and expect a good price. Varieties 
that have characteristics which lend themselves to the more up-to-date methods 
and long distance shipments, must be chosen in those districts which have and are 
developing distant markets. The above suggestions are mainly for commercial 
fruit growers. Those who arc only planting a few trees for their own use will 
find no difficulty in selecting varieties from the domestic list given in this Bulletin^ 


APPLES. 

Oeneral Lists of the Most Valuable Varieties for Market Approved hy the Board 

of Control. 

SuMMEfi: Astrachan, Duchess. 

Fall: Gravenstein, Wealthy, Alexander, Mcintosh, Pameiise, Blenheim. ■ 

Winter: King, Hubbardston, Greening, Cranberry, Baldwin, Spy, Stark. 

Varieties especially adapted to Home Use. 

Summer: Transparent, Primate, Sweet Bough, Duchess. 

Fall: Chenango, Gravenstein, Wealthy, Mcintosh, Fameuse, Blenheim. 

Winter: King, Wagener, Swayzie, Greening, Tolman, Spy. 

Hardy Apples Recommended for Sections North of Latitude 46 Degrees, or 
Approximately in a Line with the Ottawa River. 

Summer: Transparent, Lowland Easpberry, Charlamoff. 
Fall and Winter : Duchess, Wealthy, Hibernal, Longfield, Patten, Whitney, 

Hyslop, Milwaukee. 

CRAB APPLES. 

Whitney : A large crab of high quality, suitable for planting in the extreme 
north where other apples will not succeed. May be used for dessert or cooking. 
Martha: An early crab of fair quality. 
Transcendent: Yellowish crab, season early autumn. 
Hyslop: Dark, rich, red crab, of late season, quality only fair. 

CHERRIES. 

Hardy varieties suitable for any portion of the Province bounded by Lakes 
Ontario, Erie, Huron and the Georgian Bay: Orel, Richmond, Montmorency, 
fiussian 207. For southern sections see district lists. 

PEACHES. 

General List for Niagara District Only. 

St. John, Early Crawford. Greensboro, Champion, *Brigdon or Garfield, Fitz- 
gerald, *Reeves, *Niagara, Elberta, Carmen, Beers Smock. 

*Very similar and any of these varieties may be set, but all are not needed 

to cover the season. 

PEARS. 

Giffard, Clapp, Bartlett, Boussock, Flemish (hardy, subject to spot), Howell, 
Louise, Duchess, Bosc, Clairgeau, Anjou, Kieffer. 

PLUMS. 

Americana: These are extremely hardy and desirable where the European 
sand Japanese varieties cannot be grown. Aitken, Cheney, Bixby, Mankato, Wolf, 
Hawkeye, Stoddard. 

European: Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Gueii, Shipper Pride, Lombard (liable 
to overbear, requires thinning), Quackenboss, Yellow Egg, Grand Duke, Golden 
Drop (Coe), Reine Claude (one of the best for canning). 


Japanese: These are a^parenrtly quite as hardy as the European varieties: 
Ked June, Abundance, Burbank, Climax. 

QUINCES. 

Fuller, Orange (the leading market variety in Ontario), Champion (for 
southern Ontario only, as it ripens too late for other sections). 

GEAPES. 

Blacl: Moore, Campbell, Worden, Concord, Wilder. 
Red: Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Vergennes. 
}Yhite : Diamond, Niagara. 

For Noethern Sections: 

Black: Champion, Moore, Campbell, Worden. 
Red: Moyer, Brigliton, Delaware, liindley. 
White: Winchell, Diamond. 


BLACKBERRIES. 
Agawam, Snyder, and for southern sections, Kittatinny. 

CURRANTS. 

Blach: Black Victoria, Champion, Lee, Boskoop Giant, Saunders. 
Bed: Cherry, Fay, Red Cro.ss, Victoria, Wilder. 
White : Grape. 

GOOSEBERRIES. 

American Varieties: Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket. 

English Varieties: Crown Bob, Whitesmith, Industry, Keepsake. Not recom- 
mended on account of mildew, unless to be thoroughly sprayed with the lime 
sulphur mixture. 

RASPBERRIES. 

Blach: Hilborn, Older, Gregg, Smith Giant. 
Purple : Columbian, Shaflfer. 
Red: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. 
White: Golden Queen, 

r 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Commercial: Bederwood (P.), Splendid (P.), Warfield (Imp.), not suited 
to light sandy soil, Greenville (Imp.), Williams (Imp.), Saunders (P.), Sample 
(Imp.), Irene (Imp,), Buster (Imp.), Parsons Beauty (P.). 

Note. — These varieties vary somewhat in order of tlieir ripening season. In 
selecting varieties for planting, perfect-flowered varieties should be included to 
fertilize those having imperfect flowers. 


NIAGAEA DISTRICT. 

(Including the Niagara Peninsula from the Niagara River to Hamilton and north 

to the escarpment.) 

RoBEET Thompson, St. Cathaeines. 
Apples : 

Commercial: Astrachan, Duchess, Gravenstein, Blenheim, Wealthy, Wagener, 
Mcintosh, Hubbardston, King, Greening, Baldwin, Spy. 
Peaes: Gift'ord, Clapp, Bartlett, Bosc. Duchess (Dwarf), Anjou, Kieffer. 
Plums: Red June, Climax, Shiro, Burbank, Arctic, German Prune, Shropshire 

Damson, Grand Duke, Monarch, Reine Claude. 
Strawbeeeies (For long distance sMpments) : Williams, Brandy wine. 

E. D. Smith, Winona. 
Cheheies : 

Sour: Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello. 
Sweet: White — Gov. Wood, Napoleon. 

Black — Knight, Tartarian, Mezel, Windsor, Schmidt Bigarreau (for clay 
only). 

Egbeet M. Smith. 

Peaes: Giffard, Bartlett, Howell, Louise, Flemish, Duchess (dwarf), Anjou, 

Kiefier. 
Plums: Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Monarch, Reine Claude, 

Shropshire Damson, German Prune, Fallenburg, Washington for deep, dry 

soil. 

Geapes : 

Black: Champion, Worden, Wilder, Concord. 
Red: Delaware, Lindley, Agawam, Vergennes. 
White: Diamond, Niagara. 

S. H. Rittenhouse, Joedan Haeboue. 

Peaches: St. John, Early Crawford, Fitzgerald, Elberta, Lemon Free, Beers 

Smock. 
Raspbeeeies : 

Red: Marlboro, Cuthbert. 

Black: Gregg. 
Blackbereies : Kittatinny. 
Strawbeeeies : Dunlap, Ozark, Sample, Williams, Stevens. 

F. G. Stewart, Homer. 
Chereies : 

Sour: Richmond, Montmorency. (The English Morello, Ostheim and Wragg 
ripen late here, and are apt to be stung before they are harvested.) 

Sweet: White — Gov. Wood, Elton, Napoleon, Spanish. Black — Tartarian, 
Elkhorn, Windsor. 


5 

J. W. Smith & Sons, "Winona. 

Peaches: Triumph (5) ; Leamington (5) ; St. John (15) ; Early Crawford (10) ; 
N'ew Prolific (10) ; Champion (5) ; Eareripe (10) ; Elberta (20) ; Late 
Crawford (5) ; Lemon Free (10) ; Beers Smock (5). 
The figures refer to the percentage of each variety that this firm recommends 

for planting. 

C. E. FisHEK & Sons, Qtteenston. 

Peaches : 

Sneed (White), Triumph, Carman (White), St. John, Fitzgerald, Jacques, 
Peeves, ISTiagara, Elberta, Late Crawford, Beers Smock. 

2Vo/e:— The Triumph requires a rich, sandy loam well fertilized every year 
with well-rotted compost manure applied during early winter, and in spring just 
before plowing a heavy application of muriate of potash and pure hone. Proper 
pruning of tree and thinning of fruit are essential. 


FONTHn^L DTSTETCT. 
(Including Townships of Pelham, Stamford and Thorold.) 

G. C. Brown, Fonthill. 

Apples : Astrachan, Duchess, Greening, Fameuse, King, Baldwin, Spy. 
Cheeries : 

Sour: Pichmond, Montmorency. 

Sweet: Tartarian, Knight, Napoleon, Gov. Wood, Windsor. 
Peaches: Triumph, Greensboro, St. John, Fitzgerald, Elberta, Golden Drop or 

Banner, Lemon Free, Smock. 
Grapes: Moore, Worden, N'iagara, Delaware, Concord, Lindley. 
Currants : 

Red: Cherry, Perfection, Prince Albert. 
Raspberries : 

Bed: Cuthbert. 
Blackberries : Eldorado, Snyder. 
Strawberries: Lovett, Williams. Sample, Parsons. 


BTJPLIN'GTON'-OAKVTLLE DISTEICT. 

(Including the southern part of the counties bordering on Lake Ontario be- 
tween Hamilton and Toronto.) 

A. W. Peart, Burlington. 
Apples : 

Dnchess, Wealthy, Eibston, Greening, Blenheim, King, Baldwin, Spy. 


Cherkies : 

Dyehouse, Richmond, Windsor, Montmorency, English Morello. 
Pears : 

Wilder, Clapp, Bartlett, Boussock, Louise, Duchess (dwarf), Anjou, Kieffer, 
Lawrence, Nelis. 
Plums : 

European: Bradshaw, Niagara, Imperial G-age, Lombard, Prince of Wales, 
Yellow Egg, Peine Claude, Staunton. 

Japanese : Eed June, Abundance, Burbank. 
Grapes : 

Black : Moore, Wordem, Concord. 

Red: Moyer, Delaware, Lindley, Massassoit. 

White : Diamond, Niagara. 
Blackberries: Snyder, Western Triumph, Agawam. 
Currants : 

Blaclc : Lee, Naples, Saunders, Champion, Victoria. 

Red: Cherry, Fay, Pomona, Wilder, Victoria. 

White: Grape, Imperial. 
GoosFBERRiEs : Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket. 
Raspberries : 

Red: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthhert. 
Strawberries: Bcderwoorl, Dunlap, Williams, Gibson, Glen Mary, Leader. 


W. F. W. Fisher, Burlington. 

Apples: Duchess, Wealthy. Mcintosh, Fameuse. Ribston, King, Baldwin, Spy. 
Pears: Lawson, Clapp, Bartlett, Duchess, Anjou, Nelis. 
Plums : 

European: Bradshaw. Imperial Gage, Lombard, Peine Claude, Grand Duke. 

Japanese : Red June, Abundance, Burbank. 
Currants : 

Blaclc: Champion, Victoria. Boskoop G-iant. 

Red: Cherrv. Fav. Wilder. 
Gooseberries: Downing. Josselvn or Red Jacket. 
Raspberries Marlboro. Herbert. Cuthhert. 
Strawberries: Dunlap, Gibson, Haverland, Bubach, Glen Mary, Williams. 


W. G. Horne, Clarkson. 

Apples: Early Harvest, Astrachan. Duchess. Wealthy, Blenheim. Greening. 

Fameuse. Spv. Baldwin, Golden Russett. Tolman. 
Pears: Clapps, Bartlett, Anjou, Clairgeau, Kieffer. 
Cherries : 

Sour: Dyehouse. Richmond. Montmorency, Morello. 
Grapes: Moore, Worden. Concord. Delaware. 
Blackberries : Snvder. Western Triumph. 
Raspberries : Cuthhert, Herbert. 

Strawberries: Sample, Williams, Glen Mary. 


LAKE EEIE DISTEICT. 

(Including approximately the Counties of. Haldimand, Norfolk, Elgin, Wel- 
land, excluding FontMll District.) 

Jas. E. Johnson, Simcoe. 

Apples: Wealthy, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Baldwin, Greening, King, Spy. 
Stkawberries : AVarfield, Dunlap, Splendid, Sample, Enhance. 
Cherries : Richmond, Montmorency. 
Peaches: St. John, Fitzgerald, Crosby, Elberta, Smock. 


ESSEX PENINSULA. 
(Including Essex, Kent and Pelee Island.) 

J. L. HiLBOEN, Leamington. 

Apples: Duchess, Blenheim, Baldwin, Stark, Hubbardston, Spy. 

Cherries: Richmond, Montmorency, Windsor. 

Peaches: Dewey, St. John, New Prolific, Engle, Kalamazoo, Elberta, Banner, 

Golden Drop, Lemon, Free. 
Pears: Bartlett, Anjou, Duchess. 

Plums: Burbank, Lombard, Imperial Gage, Yellow Egg, Peine Claude. 
Grapes : 

Black: Champion, Moore, Concord. 

Red: Brighton, Vergennes, Catawba. 

White: Diamond, Niagara. 
Blackberries: Mersereau, Eldorado, Kittatinny. 
Currants : 

BlacJc : Victoria, Champion. 

Red: Cherry, Fay, Wilder. 

White : Grape. 
Gooseberries: Pearl. Downing, Whitesmith. 
Raspberries : 

BlacJc: Kansas, Hilborn, Gregg. 

Red: Marlboro, Cuthbert. 

Yellow : Golden Queen. 

Purple : Columbian. 

J. Atkin & Son, Leamington. 

Apples: Red Astrachan. Duchess, Blenheim, King, Hubbardston, Baldwin. 

Pears: Bartlett, Duchess, Keiffer. 

Plums : Burbank, Grand Duke, Lombard, Peine Claude. 

Cherries: Montmorency, Windsor, Napoleon, Tartarian. 

Peaches: Dewey, St. Johns, New Prolific, Champion, Kalamazoo, Engle, Banner, 

Late Crawford, Lemon Free, Smock, Salway. 
Currants : 

Red: Fav, Red Cross, Perfection, Loudon. 

Black: Victoria, Saunders, Lee. 


8 

BRANT DISTRICT. 

(Including Counties of Brant, Oxford, Middlesex and soutli-westem part of Perth.) 

J. C. Harris, Ingersoll. 

Apples: Duchess, Gravenstein, Blenheim, Ribston, Alexander, Greening, Baldwin, 

King (top grafted). Spy. 
Raspberries: Cuthbert, Columbian. 
Strawberries: Warfield, Dunlap, Bederwood, Haverland, Williams, Sample, 

Enhance. 

C. W. Gurnet, Paris. 

Apples: Blenheim, King, Baldwin, Spy, Greening. 


FOREST DISTRICT. 
(Including the County of Lambton.) 

D. Johnson, Eorest, 

Apples: Duchess, Greening, Baldwin, Hubbardston, Golden Russet, and (if grafted 
on Tolman) King and Spy. 

Cherries: Richmond, Montmorency. 

Peaches: For those parts of the County influenced by the lake: St. John, Fitz- 
gerald, Late Crawford, Engle, Kalamazoo, Elberta, Smock. 

Plums: Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Reine Claude. 

Raspberries: Marlboro, Cuthbert. 

Strawberries: Dunlap, Warfield, Williams, Belt, Bederwood. 


LAKE HURON DISTRICT. 
(Including Counties of Huron and Bnice.) 

D. F. Hamlink, Goderioh. 

Apples: Astrachjan, Duchess, Greening, Blenheim, Mcintosh, Fameuse, King, Tal- 

man, Baldwin, Spy, Stark, North Star. 
Peaches : St. Joihn, Early Crawford, Fitzgerald, Elberta, Longhurst and Smock. 
Cherries: Richmond, Olivet, Montmorency. 
Pears: Clapp, Bartlett, Louise, Clairgeau, Anjou. 
Plums : 

Japanese: Burbank. 

European: Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Shipper Pride, Lombard, Monarch, 
Grand Duke. 
Grapes : Champion, Moore, Word en, Niagara, Concord. 
Blackberries: Agawam, Eldorado. 
Currants : 

Black: Champion, Naples, Saunders, Victoria. 

Red: Fay, Cherry, Perfection, Albert. 

White: Grape. 


Gooseberries: Pearl, Downing, 
Easpberries : 

Black: Conrath, Hilborn. 

Red: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. 

White: Golden Queen. 
Strawberries: Brandywine, Glen Mary, Williams, Dunlap. 


GEORGIAN BAY DISTRICT. 

(Including northern portions of the Counties of Grey and Simcoe, bordering on 

the Georgian Bay.) 

J. G. Mitchell, Clarksburg. 

Apples: A&trachan, Duchess, Gravenstein, St. Lawrence, Alexander, Wealthy, 

Twenty-Oz., Mcintosh, Greening, King, Baldwin, Spy. 
Cherries: Richmond, May Duke, Montmorency, Olivet. 
Peaches: Triumph, Fitzgerald, Early Crawford, Tyhurst, Crosby. 
Pears: Clapp, Bartlett, ^Flemish, Duchess, Anjou, Clairgeau. 
Plums: Red June, Lombard, Archduke, Yellow Egg, Golden Drop, Reine Claude 
Grapes : 

BlacJc: Champion, Campbell, Worden. 

Red: Delaware, Brighton, A'^ergennes, Salem. 

White : Winchell, Diamond, Niagara. 
Currant : 

Black: Lee, Champion. 

Red: Cherry, Fay. 

White : Grape. 
Gooseberries : Houghton, Pearl, Downing, Red Jacket, Industry. 
Raspberries : 

Red: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. 

BlacJc: Hilborn, Older, Gregg. 


LAKE SIMCOE DISTRICT. 

(Including the northern and eastern section of Simcoe and northern sections of 
York and Ontario bordering on Lake Simcoe.) 

G. C. Caston, Craighurst. 
Apples: Duchess. Peerless, Alexander, Wolf, Blenheim, Pewaukee, Stark, Baxter, 

Fallawater, Fameuse, Seek, and the following if topworked on hardy stocks: 

Greening, King, Ontario, Baldwin, Spy. 
Cherries: Orel M, Ostheim, Montmorency, Dyehouse, English Morello. 
Pears: Clapp, Bartlett. 
Plums: Burbank, Staunton. 

Grapes: Campbell, Moyer, Moore, Diamond, Winchell. 
Blackberries: Agawam, Eldorado. 
Currants : 

BlacJc: Naples, Victoria. i 


10 


Eed: Fay, Versaillaise, Cherry. 

White: Grape. 
GoosEBEKRiES : Pearl, Downing. 
Raspbeeries: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthibert. 


GUELPH DISTRICT. 

(Including the high inland Counties of southwestern Ontario, i.e., Wellington, 

Waterloo, nortlivvestern section of Perth, south part of Grey, Dufferin, 

and northwest section of Peel and Halton.) 

Prof. J. W. Crow, O.A.C, Guelph. 

Apples: Duchess, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, Mcintosh. 

Crab Apples: Whitney, Martha. 

Cherries : Richmond, Montmorency. 

Pears: Clapp, Flemish, Seckel, Sheldon, Anjou. 

Plums: Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Shipper Pride, Lombard, Reine Claude, Glass. 

Grapes : 

Black : Moore. 

Red: Moyer. 

White: Winchell. 
Currants : 

Black: Victoria, Champion, Saunders. 

Red: Red Cross, Victoria, Fay. 

White: Grape. 
Gooseberries : 

American: Pearl, Downing. 

English: Whitesmith, Industry. 
Raspberries : 

Black: Older, Smith Giant. 

Red: Marlboro, Herbert, Cuthbert. 

Purple: Columbian. 

White : Golden Queen. 
Strawberries: Bederwood (P.), Splendid (P.), Warfield (Imp.), Williams (P.), 

Parsons (P.). 


LAKE ONTARIO DISTRICT. 

(Including the southern portions of the Counties bordering on the Lake Ontario 

shore from Toronto to Trenton.) 

Elmer Lice:, Oshawa. 

Apples: Gravenstein, Mcintosh, Fameuse, Blenheim, Greening, Baldwin, Spy. 

(If further varieties are required add Golden Russet (for wet spots), Cran- 
berry, Fallawater, Stark (liable to be overplanted). 

W. H. Dempsey, Trenton. 

Apples: Duchess, Gravenstein, Alexander, Fameuse, Mcintosh, Greening, Baldwin, 
Spy, Ben Davis, Stark. 


11 

Cherries: Eichmond, Montmorency. 

Pears : Giffard, Clapp, Boussock, Hardy, Bosc, Clairgeau, Lawrence. 

P. A. Greer, Wellington. 

Raspberries: CTitht)ert, Columbian. 
Strawberries : Dunlap, Sample, Parson. 

A. B. Arnott, Trenton. 

Blackberries: Snyder'. 
Grapes : 

Black: Moore, Worden, Concord. 

Red: Brig-hton, Lindley, Agawam, Massasoit. 

White: Niagara, Pocklington. 


ST. LAWEENCE VALLEY DISTRICT. 

(Including the valley of the St. Lawrence River from Kingston to the eastern 

boundary of the Province.) 

Harold Jones, Maitland. 

Apples: Duchess, St. Lawrence, Alexander, Wolf, Wealthy, Scarlet Pippin, 

Fameuse, Mcintosh, Baxter, Tolman, Golden Russet. 
Cherries: Richmond, Montmorency, Orel, English Morello. 

Pears: Flemish (if grown in sod), Ritson (not so hardy in fruit bud as Flemish). 
Plums : 

American : Aitkin, Bixby, Mankato, Cheney, Wolf, Schle;^', Brackett, Hawkeye, 
Stoddard. 

European: Glass, Raynes, Mount Royal, Lunn. 
Gooseberries: Golden Prolific, Downing. 
Raspberries: Her'bert. 
Strawberries: Belt, Williams, Wolverton, Climax, Saunders, Miller. 


OTTAWA DISTRICT. 

(Including the Ottawa Valley and the eastern portion of the* Province not else- 
where enumerated, south of latitude 46 deg.). 

W. T. Macoun, Horticulturist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. 

Apples: Transparent, Lowland Raspberry, Duchess, St. Lawrence, Wealthy, 

Alexander, Mcintosh, Fameuse, Wolf, Milwaukee, Baxter, Scott. 
Crab Apples: Whitney, Martha, Hyslop. 

Cherries: Orel 25, Vladimir, Minnesota, Ostheim, Cerise d'Ostheim. 
Pears : Flemish in most favored parts. 


12 
Plums : 

Americana and Nigra: Aitkin, Bixby, Mankato, Cheney, Wolf, Schley, 
Brackett, Hawkeye, Stoddard. 

European: Early Eed (Eussian), Mount Eoyal, Glass, Montmorency, Eaynes, 
Perdrigon. 
Geapes: 

Black: Early Daisy, Mamito, Worden, Merrimac, Wilder. 

Bed: Moyer, Brighton, Delaware, Lindley. 

White: Winchell, Diamond. 
Blackberries: Agawam, Snyder. 
Currants : 

Black: Saunders, Collins, Prolific, Black Victoria; Boskoop Giant is very 
promising. 

Red: Pomona, Victoria, Dutch and Wilder in the most favored parts. 

White: Grape. 
Gooseberries: Pearl, Downing and Eed Jacket. 
Easpberries : 

Black: Hilborn, Older, Cumberland. 

Bed: Marlboro, Herbert. . 

Yellow: Golden Queen. 
Strawberries: Bederwood (P.)j Splendid (P.), Warfield (Imp.), not suited to 

light soil; Greenville (Imp.), Parson Beauty (P.), Pocomoke (P.), Sample 

(Imp.), Buster (Imp.). 


ALGOMA DISTEICT. 

(Including the islands of Manitoulin and St. Joseph, and a limited portion of 
the northern and eastern shore of the Georgian Bay.) 

Chas. Young, Eichard's Landing. 

Apples: Transparent, Charlamoff, Astraehan, Duchess, Peacb, St. Lawrence, 

Alexander, North Star, Colvert, Gideon, Mcintosh, Winter St. Lawrence, 

Wolf, Baxter, Longfield, Louise, Wealthy, Patten. 
Crab Apples: Whitney, Hyslop, Isham. 
CHERrxiEs: If near the influence of the water, Eichmond, Montmorency, English 

Morello, Orel 25 and Ostheim. 
Plums : 

European: Glass, Lombard, Pond, Trabesh (Eussian), Goliath (Eussian). 

Americana: Cheney, Wolf, Hawkeye, Stoddard, City. 
Grapes: Campbell, Moore, Winchell, Janesville. 
Currants : 

Black: Saunders, Champion, Victoria. 

Bed: Dutch, Versaillaise. 

White: Grape. 
Gooseberries: Golden Prolific, Pearl, Downing, Eed Jacket, Champion. 
Easpberries : 

Bed: Marlboro, Louden. 

White: Brinckle Orange (for quantity only). 
Strawberries : Clyde, Haverland, Glen Mary, Brandywine. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 


PCTBLISHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AgrICULTUEE, TOBONTO. 


Serial 
No. 


Date. 


Title. 


Author. 


167 Oct. 1908 Mitchell-Walker Moisture Test | w.'o'. Walker!" 

168 Oct 1908 The Perennial Sow Thistle and some other 

Weed Pests J. E. Howitt. 

169 Feb. 1909 Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- f S. F. Edwards. 

gen Accumulation in the Leguminosae . . \ B. Barlow. 

f T W Mitohell 

170 Mar. 1909 Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | ^ o_ Walker.' 

C Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Bethune. 

171 April 1909 jp^^g^^ j^^,^,,^ Affecting Vegetables .... { J; ^^i^^'Lm. 

172 May 1909 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) . . . Dairy School. 

173 Oct. 1909 Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

174 Dec. 1909 Farm Under drainage: Does it Pay? W. H. Day, 

175 Dec. 1909 Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

176 Dec. 1909 Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees D. H. Jones. 

177 Dec. 1909 Lime-Sulphur Wash I j^' Qaesar. 

178 Dec. 1909 Character and Treatment of Swamp or ) W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils I A. E. Slater. 

179 Feb. 1910 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 

(No. 147 revised ) Fruit Branch 

( "R. "FTs-rcourt 

180 April 1910 Flour and Breadmaking | ^ ^ Purdy. 

181 June 1910 The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

182 July 1910 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

183 Aug. 1910 Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch. 

184 Nov. 1910 Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

185 Nov. 1910 Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

186 Dec. 1910 Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

187 Jan. 1911 The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

188 April 1911 Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

189 May 1911 Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Graham. 

190 May 1911 Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

191 June 1911 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

192 July 1911 Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

193 Nov. 1911 Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

194 Dec. 1911 Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

195 Jan. 1912 Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised ( h L^Ful^mer. 

196 Jan. 1912 Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

197 Feb. 1912 Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

198 Feb. 1912 Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

199 Feb. 1912 Onions A. McMeans. 

200 April 1912 Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

9M TJtotT 1 01 9 \ Peach Diseases F. M. Clement. 

zui May ivii I pg^^,j^ Growing in Ontario L. Caesar. 

202 May 1912 Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

203 May 1912 Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

204 June 1912 Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

205 Sept. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . f 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making J Staff of Dairy SchooL 

206 Nov. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) .. 1 Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm \ ^ 

207 Dec. 1912 Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

208 Jan. 1913 Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions f J. H. Hare. 

in Ontario County \ T. A. Benson. 

209 March 1913 Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavitz. 

210 March 1913 Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. F. M. Clement. 

211 March 1913 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters... Fruit Branch 

(No. 179 revised.) 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 


BULLETIN 212 


An Orchard Survey 

of Dundas, Stormont and Glengarry 


By 
F. S. REEVES, B.S.A. 


as 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, APRIL, 1913 


BULLETIN 212] [APRIL, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 


An Orchard Survey 

of Dundas, Stormont and Glengarry 

F. S. Reeves 

Eecognizing the importance of developing the apple industry in these and 
neighboring counties, the Department deemed it advantageous to prepare this survey 
in order to show what had been accomplished, and, if possible, to more strongly 
demonstrate what may be achieved by developing orchards of varieties of apples 
which seem to be especially adapted to this section, and which at the same time 
are commanding the highest prices on our Canadian markets. To do this every 
apple orchard was visited and careful notes made and the whole information 
compiled for the use of the farmers in this section. 

In order to obtain explicit information as to the existing orchard conditions, 
a farm-to-farm survey was made. Individual ferms for each orchard were used 
and contained the following information : Owner's name, post:oflBce, county, location, 
township, acres in farm, acres in fruit, number and age of bearing trees, acres 
bearing, distances of planting, number and age of non-bearing trees, acres non- 
bearing, site, aspect, planting plan, nature of other crops in the orchard, varieties^ 
type of soil, depth, sub-soil, drainage, tillage — kind and frequency, cover crop, num- 
ber of years tillage and sowing of cover crop has been practised, kind of sod,,, 
number of years in sod, method of treatment of sod; fertilizers,— kind, quantity 
and frequency applied; pruning— time, method, frequency, severity, thinning; 
spraying— machinery, mixtures and times of applying, diseases, insects, present, 
condition of orchard, packages used, where and by whom packing was done, yields,, 
prices, income per acre, where and how sold, and remarks on any subject pertaining 
to the orchard not contained in the above. Most of the farmers were able to supply 
fairly accurate information, so that the data gathered can be relied upon. With but 
few exceptions, no farmers kept any records or accounts of their orchards, and for 
this reason prices and yields for two years back only were obtainable, as beyond tliat 
it would be merely guess work and unreliable as subject matter for this survey. In 
all, about two hundred and fifty orchards were visited, and as much time as was 
required was spent with all farmers who showed a disposition to seek any informa- 
tion, or could be induced to talk of their experiences, both favorable and adverse, of 
the apple industry. 

Tekeitoet Coveeed. 

The territory covered is the first concession bordering along the north bank of 
the St. Lawrence Eiver from Summerstown in Glengarry County to the western 


2 

boundary of Dundas County, a distance of about forty-five miles, and a portion of 
Matilda Township, in Dundas County, extending back from the river four or five 
miles. This territory was chosen because it was the most accessible, and where the 
greatest number of orchards could be visited in the least time. It is not to be 
inferred that this district is better for the growing of apples, because fruit of the 
best quality is being produced fifteen to twenty miles from the St. Lawrence Eiver ; 
in fact, all the well-drained lands throughout the whole three counties are equally 
well adapted to the culture of apples. 


Eesults in the Best Orchards. 

Some idea of the profits of fruit growing in this section may be gathered from 
the examples of a few orchards : Ernest Farlinger, Morrisburg, sold his crop on 
the trees from one and one-third acres of orchard containing forty-three Mcintosh 
Eed trees and three Wealthys, for $400 in 1910, and for $225 in 1911. Elory 
Casselman, Dundela, sold his crop on the trees from four acres of orchard contain- 
ing all Mcintosh Eed trees for $350 in 1910 and for $550 in 1911. Harold Willard, 
Morrisburg, sold his crop from two acres of orchard for $350 in 1910.' W. Gr. 
Eobertson, of Iroquois, has an orchard of three acres, and the varieties grown are 
Fameuse, Mcintosh Eed, Eusset and Ben Davis. Prior to 1900, when Mr. Eobert- 
son came to the place, the orchard had been neglected, but after being pruned and 
sprayed it soon became profitable. In 1908 he sold his crop for $290, in 1909 for 
$516, and in 1910 for $340. " The 1911 crop at this date is not sold. These orchards 
the past two years have been sprayed systematically with lime-sulphur. Previous to 
1910, Mr. Eobertson sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. Dr. Harkness, of Irena, has 
a six acre orchard of Fameuse and Mcintosh Eed set out by himself in 1871 and 
1872. This orchard is thoroughly sprayed each year. The returns for several years 
back are as follows: 1905. $1,§93; 1906, $1,233; 1907, $1,720; 1908, $948; 1909, 
$1,383. In each case this is a.fter paying freight and commission. Barrels and 
work average from $300 to $400 a year. iVndrew Fawcett, Inkemian, who has five 
acres of orchard, sold his crop on the trees for $900 in 1911, but in 1910 he sold 
scarcely any, as his crop was ruined by the apple scab. This orchard was sprayed 
with lime-sulphur in 1911. 

The table below compares the results from the best 11 sprayed and pruned 
orchards, against the best 11 unsprayed and unpruned orchards. 


1910. 


1909. 


Number 

of 
orchards. 


•Number 


Average per acre. 


Bbls. 


Price 
per 
bbl. 


'Price 

per 

acre. 


Bbls. 


Price 
per 
bbl. 


Price 
per 
acre. 


of 
acres. 


Unsprayed and un- 
pruned orchards . . . 

Sprayed and pruned 
orchards 


24 
52 


$ c. 
2.22 

8.80 


$ c. 
53.34 

172.00 


39 

58 


$ c. 
1.60 

2.87 


$ c. 
62.20 

165.46 


11 
11 


51 

38 


Possibilities. 

Climatic and Topographical. — ^There is no question about the fact that the 
climate and topography is suited to the production of apples of first-class quality, 
of certain varieties. It is beyond the experimental stage. Some few orchards 


where good cultural methods are practised are producing good crops annually, and 
have been doing so for a large number of years. This is the home of the Mcintosh 
Eed apple, and nowhere in the world is it grown to greater perfection and of better 
quality. 

In the portions of Dundas County covered by this survey, the land lies fairly 
level or gently undulating; while in the portions of Stormont and Glengarry it is 
of a rolling nature, the country being traversed east and west by gravelly glacial 
moraines. The slopes of these ridges offer ideal sites for apple orchards, but in the 
more level parts of the counties a good deal of care must be exercised in the selection 
of the site for an orchard. 

Transportation. — There is no lack of transportation facilities east and west. 
The Grand Trunk railroad traverses the whole three counties about a mile north 
of the river, and the Canadian Pacific railroad about eighteen miles further north. 
The St. Lawrence river affords an excellent means of transportation by water, being 
in direct communication with Montreal, itself a large market, and the port for 
direct ocean trans-shipment to the O^d Country markets. Fruit could be loaded at 
various points every four or five miles along the river and taken direct to Montreal, 
landing there in from twelve to twenty-four hours after shipment. The New York 
and Ottawa railroad traverses Stormont County north and south, here opening up 
a good deal of country and giving better communication with the east and west lines 
and with Ottawa. There are great possibilities for an electric railroad running 
in the same direction further west in Dundas County, and should such an under- 
taking be consummated it would have a great influence in reviving orchard culture 
in that part of the county. But the best and cheapest transportation is by water, 
and no, doubt were fruit shipped in larger quantities an excellent service would be 
developed on the St. Lawrence Eiver, for at the present time there are many local 
freight and passenger boats plying up and down the river which would welcome an 
opportunity of handling fruit to Montreal if it were offered in large enough quan- 
tities. The New York and Ottawa railroad opens up a line of communication 
directly into the heart of Kew York State and to New York City. Waddington in 
New York State is connected with Morrisburg by ferry, and is in direct communica- 
tion with the New York Central lines. 

ft 

Labor. — ^This problem is one of the most perplexing questions confronting the 
farmers of Ontario, and is no less acute in this district than elsewhere. The farms 
have been depleted of their youth by the rapid growth of Western Canada, and the 
general exodus cityward. Perhaps this is a good sign of the prosperity of Canada, 
and a good thing for the country as a whole, as it signifies good opportunities for 
young men and the rapid growth of the country. But it has worked havoc on the 
farms of this district. Everywhere is heard the same plaint, " The boys have gone 
west or to the city and we cannot get help." In consequence, something must be 
neglected, and invariably the first thing neglected is the orchard. There is a 
remedy for this state of affairs, and it must be approached in an unbiased state of 
mind. Men can procure higher wages in other parts of the country, and naturally 
they go there. In the first place, they should receive better pay on the Ontario 
farms so that they would not be so easily enticed away. Most farmers expect the 
men to work very long hours for a wage much below that paid in other lines of 
business. Farmers are receiving more for their produce now than formerly, and 
especially is this true of the fruit products; therefore they should be able to pay 
better wages. The more progressive farmers, however, find that it pays them to pay 
better wages and treat their men well ; they get more intelligent work, done with ^ 


better spirit and feeling towards the employer. But the greatest difficulty seems to 
be in getting men at all ; therefore, an effort should be made to get men from else- 
where. The system of building cottages and employing more married men — men 
who are less roving in their disposition, and hence will not leave for every little 
difficulty that arises — is a system worthy of trial and one that should be encouraged, 
as it partly solves the social side of the problem, besides having other advantages 
both for the employer and employee. 

Pruit culture works well in connection with dairying, a good deal of the work 
coming at a time when other farm work is not so pressing. The pruning can all be 
done in the late winter, when the weather is not too disagreeable. Thus it has a 
tendency to provide work all the year round on the farm, the lack of which is partly 
responsible for the system of hiring men for the summer only and leaving them to 
seek other employment during the winter. The consequence of this practice is felt 
in the spring, by the reluctance of men to engage to work on the farm when they 
know that as the next winter approaches they will have to turn to the town again 
for work. 

MarTcets. — Most of the fruit that is not consumed locally goes to Montreal or 
Ottawa, while a small percentage is shipped direct to Europe. In Montreal and 
Ottawa there is an ever extending and growing market, close at home, with easy and 
quick transportation facilities. These are the natural markets for this district, and 
besides there are excellent shipping facilities at the port of Montreal for the Old 
Country markets. There are also great possibilities for building up United States 
markets for the best grade of winter apples. New York, Boston, and all the New 
England manufacturing towns are within easy reach, and as yet the Canadian apple 
is almost unknown in those markets. 

Land Values. — Along the river front, the value of improved land varies from 
$60 to $100 per acre, and about the same price prevails in the back concessions. 

The whole of this land is not adapted for the location of apple orchards, but an 
average of twenty- five per cent, of the land is so adapted ; and taking the farm as a 
whole the price is very reasonable, and perhaps may be considered a little low if 
the possibilities of fruit growing are taken into consideration. From the results of 
the well-managed orchards quoted in the opening of this report, farms with good 
orchards may be, with a very conservative estimate, valued at four or five times 
their present value. 

Eecommendations. 

Size of Orchards. — The average size of the orchards is about an acre in extent, 
very rarely was one encountered of four or five acres, while there are a few about 
eight or ten acres, and two orchards only of fourteen acres. These two are young 
orchards partly one and partly two years old. The majority of the orchards 
are not full, and very little attempt is made to replace dead trees, so that 
in a few years a great m.any orchards will become fields with a few trees scattered 
about them, unless a revival of the orchard industry takes place. There are approxi- 
mately 19,396 bearing trees and 6,368 non-bearing trees in this district. 

In order to make orcharding profitable and interesting, it should be taken up 
on a scale that will give the grower good returns and make it profitable to install all 
the latest improvements for its handling. Also, he should grow fruit of one variety 
in large enough quantities that he can demand the attention of buyers as a factor in 
the market. This means that shipping must be done by the car-load, and wherever 
possible they should be of one variety. This does not necessarily mean that one 
variety only should be grown, but that the varieties should be grown in large ejiough 


quantities to ship each by the car load. These ends will best be gained by an orchard 
of at least five acres in extent, and the larger they are, the better, up to a reasonable 
size for the management of one individual, and that limit depends upon the business 
ability of the grower. 

Soils and Locations.— Tiie apple thrives on a variety of types of soil. In this 
section they are thriving and giving good results on all gradations from heavy clay 
to light sandy and gravelly soils. But they must be all well underdrained, either 
naturally or artificially. To use a common expression, "An apple tree mil not 
thrive with wet feet," and this will soon become evident where a grower tries to 
grow an orchard on poorly drained soil. 

Air drainage is also a very important factor in location, and for these reasons 
it will be wise to select land that lies high and dry, and if the soil is in the least 
retentive of moisture in its character it should be underdrained. Air drainage is 
important because the trees will not thrive in stagnant air and because of the danger 
of late spring and early fall frosts ; therefore it may be emphasized that the location 
should have good air as well as water drainage. Along the St. Lawrence Eiver front 
the air drainage is good, as the proximity of the water and the rapid current serves 
to keep the air always in motion; even on the stillest nights there will always be a 
current of air towards the water and flowing along with the current. 

Varieties. — There is a great number of varieties planted in this district, but the 
majority of them have little or no commercial value. 

The following is a list found growing in this section: Salome, Bietigheimer, 
Pine, Tolman, Fall Pippin, Eusset, Mcintosh, Duchess, Fameuse, Astraclian, St. 
lyawrence, Ben Davis, Greening, Wealti^.y, Alexander, Mann, Tetosky, Stark, Twenty 
Ounce, Peach, Baxter, Spitzenburg, Maiden Blush, Gideon, Haas, Yellow Trans- 
parent, Spy, Blue Pearmain, Blenheim, Langford, Broekville Beauty, Bellflower, 
Canada Red, Pewaukee, Baldwin, Early Harvest, Milwaukee, Wagener, Seek, Wolf 
River, Whitney. 

It will easily be seen on glancing at the above list that these varieties must have • 
only been planted in very small numhers. Nevertheless it bears out the fact that 
there must be a great future for the production of apples of suitable varieties which 
have been found to be the best in this section. 

A list is hereby given of the varieties recommended for this section by the 
Department of Agriculture: — 

Transparent, Lowland-Raspherry, Duchess, St. Lawrence, Wealthy, Alexander, 
Mcintosh, Fameuse, Wolf, Milwaukee, Baxter, Scott, Scarlet Pippin, Tolman. 

Crab Apples: Whitney, Martha, Hyslop. 

The best varieties for the district are: Mcintosh Red, Fameuse or Snow,, 
Scarlet Pippin, and Wealthy for commercial purposes, while a few other select 
varieties may be grown in small quantities for domestic use. The Mcintosh Red is 
the best apple suited to this climate and locality. It is an early winter apple of good 
color, large size, excellent quality, good packer, good shipper, and keeps until March 
and April. It is well known in all markets and commands the highest price. The 
Fameuse is perhaps the best known apple in eastern Ontario. The Scarlet Pippin 
is not so well known, but is highly recommended by successful fruit growers of this 
locality. It is a good shipper and keeper, being at its best in January. These three 
varieties are early winter apples. The Wealthy, a fall apple, is well known on the 
markets. It is large, of good color, a good shipper and packer and of good quality; 
its season is from Octoher to January. The Duchess is another good fall variety, 
ripening in the latter part of August, but its keeping qualities are not good, it 


6 

being rather a precarious crop to handle, although its beauty in color commands for 
it the top prices on the market. 

Nursery Stock. — The nursery stock planted the last few years has been of 
'•nther poor quality, with crooked and ill-shaped trunks and poorly formed heads, 
and a great percentage of them three or four year old trees. But that has been the 
least of its faults. Much bitter reproach has been hurled at the nursery stock 
peddlers who sold trees for standard varieties, and when they came into bearing 
they turned out to be anything but what was ordered, and invariably were common, 
worthless trash of no commercial value • whatever. The orchard business has lost 
many good supporters on this account, who, through lack of knowledge of reliable 
firms and of details with regard to the purchase of nursery stock, have become dis- 
gusted and neglected their opportunities in apple-growing. 

A few farmers should act together to buy nursery-stock. They should make 
investigations as to the best and most reliable firms, and then send a man to the 
nursery to inspect the stock he is buying and make a bargain for a large quantity ; 
thus the farmers will be sure of getting good trees and in good condition. By buy- 
ing co-operatively, a cheaper rate will be secured, the freight will be comparatively 
less, and with large shipments packing will be done better and delivery will be more 
prompt. But most important of all, they will be able to rely upon the trees being 
true to name. 

Strong unbranehed. whips are the best trees to plant, but they must have dili- 
gent and intelligent care, because they are young and almost invisible, one might 
say, after they are planted in the field, and will suffer more from neglect than other 
trees. Two year old trees are very good, but older trees should not be bought, as they 
are frequently culls and left-over stock of a nursery. Good nursery stock should 
be healthy, well-grown, free from all insects or insect injury and disease. The 
straight whip should be five or six feet in height with a good, well-branched root 
system, and a large percentage of small fibrous roots. The two year old tree should 
have a well branched and evenly balanced head, formed between two and three feet 
above the roots, so thait when it is planted the head will be one and a half to two and 
a half feet above the ground, and it should have the same character of root system 
as the unbranehed whip. 

Distance Apart por Planting. 

The greatest objection to the old orchards throughout this section is that they 
were planted too closely together, the distance varying from 15 x 15 to 20 x 24, with 
a few exceptions where the trees were planted 30 x 30. Th result of this close plant- 
ing has been to force the trees up, making the operations of picking, spraying and 
pruning more expensive and inadequate, and at the same time lessening the pro- 
duction of marketable fruit. The trees in an apple orchard should be set far enough 
apart to allow the full development of the tree without crowding, and in no case 
s'hould standard long lived trees be planted less than 35 feet apart both ways. 
Varieties which are slow growing and do not attain such a growth as the Mcintosh, 
and are more like the Wealthy and Duchess, may be planted at a lesser distance, and 
even tben must be kept in hounds by means of pruning. 

Management of Young Orchards. 

Planting. — Over the portion of Dundas County covered by this survey there 
has been a great revival of orchard planting in the past year^or two, and at the 
present time there is a large number of young trees sold for next year's planting. 


This in a large measure, in the writer's opinion, is the result of the stimulus started 
by the demonstration work done by the Department of Agriculture near and around 
Morrisburg during the last two years. In the other two counties only one or two 
new orchards have been planted, and they are of small extent. The planting as a 
rule has been poorly done, although a few of the planters understood their work. 
Many trees have been planted too shallow, and very little or no pruning has been 
done at the time of planting. 

The trees should be planted in the spring as soon as the weather and soil con- 
ditions will permit. A large hole two feet in diameter and a foot deep should be 
dug, pkcing the top soil in one pile and the bottom soil in another. The roots 
should be all pruned back to a'bout six inches long and all dead and injured roots 
taken off back to healthy tissue; they should be spread out evenly in the hole and a 
little top soil work in around them by hand. The soil should be tramped in around 
the tree as fii-mly as possible, and the tops pruned back to balance them up with the 
roots. If the tree is a straight whip, the top should be cut off about two feet ahove 
the ground, and the two year old trees should be pruned back to three or four main 
limbs, and these again pruned to six or eight inches long. No watering should be 
necessary, hut if the planting season should be unseasonably hot and dry, as the past 
one has been, water should be used. Apply it just above the roots and not on top of 
the ground. See that surface soil around the tree is left loose. 

Cultivation. — Fifty-five per cent, of the young orchards have been cropped with 
corn or potatoes between the trees, eight per cent, were sown to grain, while thirty- 
seven per cent, were planted in sod. With young orchards, it is in the interest of 
economy to raise other crops between the rows of trees, but upon no consideration 
should these crops he allowed to encroach upon the trees. The youno- trees when 
first planted should have at least three feet each side of them which should be kept 
cultivated so as to secure a dust mulch that will conserve the moisture. This dis- 
tance should be increased yearly as the trees increase in size and require the ground. 
Cultivation should continue once a week or after every rain during the summer up 
until the 15th of June, when it should cease and a cover crop be sown at the last cul- 
tivation. Those trees that were cultivated with the corn or potatoes have made an 
average of a foot and a half growth during the season ; those in the sod grew about 
half as much. Those planted amongst the grain liave made a little growth, and in 
some cases no more than kept alive, while a larger percentage of them have died. A 
cultivated crop is hest to grow in the young orchard, as then there will be a better 
chance to give the trees thorough cultivation ; and about once in three or four year? 
clover or some other leguminous crop should be grown as a cover crop to add humus 
and nitrogen to the soil, unless liberal coatings of manure are worked in annually 
or biennially. 

It has been strongly recommended by the largest growei's, and by Professor 
Macoun, of Ottawa, that bearing orchards should be kept in sod, which should be 
occasionally broken up and then re-seeded. This practice is to ensure necessai-y 
protection from winter injury, which is a great factor in this section. 

Fertilizing. — ^The majority of orchards have had ample manure applied to 
them, but it has not been applied in the right manner. In a great many cases it 
is piled around the trees and up against them, and is sometimes taken from the 
trunks and sometimes left there over winter. Most farmers, however, realize the 
danger from mice in this latter practice, although they pile against the tree in 
summer. Their arguments are that it retains moisture around the tree abd saves 
hand-hoeing the weeds from around the trunks. 


8 

The manure should be spread around the same way as for any other crop and 
worked into the soil, but, of course, it must be applied within reach of the roots of 
the young tree. The roots usually extend farther than the branches. It is a mis- 
taken idea that the manure should be applied close around the trunks, because the 
most of the feeding roots of the tree a;re at the ends of the larger roots, although a 
small proportion of them are distributed all along the main roots. 

Artificial fertilizers, with the exception of wood ashes, are not used at all. A 
few farmers are using their wood ashes on the orchard, but they apply them the 
same way as they do the barnyard manure. Wood ashes should be applied about the 
rate of fifty bushels per acre and should be spread and worked in the same way as 
the manure. Young trees should not require heavy fertilizing every year. If they 
are making good growth of two or three feet of new wood and look healthy, with a 
dark green hue to their foliage, they have sufficient of the elements available in the 
soil for their immediate use. 

Pruning. — This is a feature of orchard work that has been absolutely neglected 
in the care of young orchards, with the exception of the little pruning some of the 
trees receive at planting time. 

The young trees should be carefully pruned and trained each year. A few 
principles may be in place here, but there is no stated rule to lay down, and the 
[>runer must rely largely upon his own judgment. In the first place he must have 
an ideal and prune intelligently, always with that ideal in view. All crossing, weak 
and ill-formed limbs should be taken out, and no weak crotches left that will in 
after years break down with the load of fruit. The head should be kept fairly well 
thinned, so that there may be free circulation of air and sun through, and so that 
the tree will not be induced to grow too higli, as it will surely do if allowed to 
become too dense, when the lower limbs will die from lack of sun and air. The 
height of heading a tree is a point for much controversy, but, if the fact that the 
limbs of a low-headed tree will tend to grow upward, is borne in mind, it will easily 
be seen that the limbs of a low-headed tree v/ill interfere with cultivation no more 
than those of a high-headed tree, as these latter will grow out and tend to droop to 
the ground. The advantages are obviously greater in performing every other opera- 
tion on the low-headed tree than on the high-headed tree. 

Effect of Winds. — Many of the young trees have become badly distorted by the 
prevailing winds where they are exposed to its full force. The whole tree becomes 
lop-sided and leans badly to the east, and the new growth each year is blown up and 
turned towards the centre of the tree, thus making the top unbalanced and the 
^'entre too dense. If the orchard is not naiurally sheltered from the prevailing wind, 
a wind-break of spruce, pine, or cedar should be planted on the north and west sides, 
about the same time the apple trees are planted; these will grow at the same rate or 
a little faster than the apple trees, and will protect them from the full fury of the 
north-west and westerly gales. It is a good practice when planting the orchard to 
slightly lean the trees against the prevailing wind, and they will straighten up later 
under the influence of the wind. 

Pests. — Most of the young orchards were badly attacked with the Oyster-shell 
scale or Oyster-shell bark louse, the apple aphis, and in some cases, the Buffalo tree 
hopper. The disease known as the apple tree canker was also found, even in one 
vear planted orchards. Young trees attacked by the Oyster-shell scale should be 
sprayed with lime-sulphur, either commercial or home-made, of a strength of one 
gallon to nine or ten of water, before the leaf buds burst. The Buffalo tree hopper 
is best controlled by cultivation, and any diseased areas should be cut out and 
destroyed by burning. , 


I 

Management of Bearing Orchards. 

Every orchard should be sprayed at least four times each season: — 

1. With lime-sulphur, commercial or home-made, diluted 1 to 9 or 10 of water, 
and applied just before the leaf buds open. No poison is necessary. This applica- 
tion Id lis oyster-shell scale, blistermite, hud moth, and helps to ward off cankers and 
apple scab. 

2. With lime-sulphur, commercial or home-made, diluted 1 to 40 of water and 
two pounds of arsenate of lead per barrel as a poison, applied just before the blos- 
some open. This application destroys all feeding caterpillars, such as American 
tent caterpillars, canker worms, case bearers, and bud moths, and helps to control 
apple scab and cankers. 

3. Immediately after the blossoms fall and 'before the calyces close, using the 
same mixture as in No. 2. This application is chiefly for the control of the codling 
moth and apple scab, but also helps control the lesser apple worm and curculio. 

4. The fourth application about two weeks after No. 3, using the same mix- 
ture. This application is chiefly for the control of the apple scab, and also for any 
leaf-eating insects that may have escaped the other sprays. 

Fuller information on spraying can be obtained from Mr. E. P. Bradt, 
B.S.A., District Eepresentative of the Ontario Department of Agriculture at Morris- 
burg. 

Diseases. — The apple tree canker is found in every orchard and a few cases of 
nectaria canker and collar rot have also been found. These cankered areas should 
be cut out back to good healthy bark and tissue, the wound disinfected with corrosive 
sublimate — 1 to 1,000 — or carbolic acid, and then covered with a coat of pure paint. 
If the canker has girdled a whole limb or is on a small limb it may be cut off. All 
cankered wood should be destroyed by burning. 

Pruning. — This is probably the first thing that should be improved in orchard 
practice in these three counties. Practically all the pruning has amounted to is the 
cutting out of dead limbs and those that interfere with cultivation. In those 
orchards that are in sod the lower limbs are destroyed by stock. As a consequence 
of this method of pruning a great majority of the trees have become very high, with 
long scaffold branches, and with only a small fruit-bearing area over the top. 

A little judgment is all that is necessary in pnming a bearing orchard. The 
tree should be kept fairly thin in the top to allow a free circulation of sun and air 
through it, and to produce full maturity of the fruit on all parts of the tree. Narrow 
and weak crotches should not be left wherever it can be avoided, as they often break 
down under their load of fruit, causing a bad gap in that part of the tree which will 
take many years to fill up again with new wood. All crossing, diseased and deformed 
limbs should be taken out and the pruner should always endeavor to keep the top of 
the tree well balanced and symmetrical in form. 

Culture. — It might be said that most all the bearing orchards are in sod, as only 
seven per cent, of them are cultivated, and of those only two or three in the whole 
district covered by the survey are clean cultivated and a cover crop sown. 

Nevertheless, one successful orchardist of this district prefers to have his 
orchard in sod after it is ten years of age, although he frankly admits that a culti- 
vated orchard will yield larger crops than an uncultivated one, and strongly advo- 
cates the cultivation of young orchards. His reasons are that an orchard that is well 
manured, sprayed and pruned will give good yields while in sod, and that about once 
in every twenty years we get a severe winter which will injure the trees if the orchard 
is cultivated. 


10 

The cover crops u>sually sown are clover, hairy vetch, common vetch, peas, rye, 
and huckwheat. The clover, peas, common vetch, and hairy vetch are plants of the 
legume family, and add nitrogen as well as humus to the soil ; while rye and buck- 
wheat serve the purpose of retarding the wood growth of the trees in the fall and 
add humus, they are not nitrogen-producing plants and do not supply any actual 
fertility. The common vetch is recommended as the best cover crop to grow. It 
makes a dense matted growth over the ground and serves to help hold the snow in 
winter, which protects the roots from severe freezing. Common vetch must not he 
confused with hairy vetch, as the latter lives over the winter, and should it not be 
plowed in the spring immediately the soil conditions will permit, will commence to 
grow and rob the trees of the nourishment that they require early in the spring. 

Fertilizers. — It is unnecessary to impress the importance of fertilizers, as every 
farmer appreciates the necessity of applying manure to the trees, but it is done in 
these three counties in a very haphazard manner. Some have applied a little annu- 
ally, and a great many biennially, while a few men have applied it not quite so 
frequently. The manure, and wood ashes in the few cases where the latter has been 
used, is thrown in a heap around and close to the trunks of the trees. The manure 
when heaped in this way around tlie tree starts to ferment and generates heat, and 
besides the danger of harboring mice, will cause an unhealthy condition of the bark 
around the root collar, which provides an entrance for that form of the canker 
disease known as collar rot. 

For these bearing orchards the manure and wood ashes should be spread evenly 
over the ground the same way as for any other crop, as the feeding roots of these 
large trees extend out around as far and farther than the limbs, while only a small 
proportion of them are upon the main roots near the trunk. If the orchard is in 
sod, a liberal coating of manure should be applied every year. But if it is cultivated, 
a leguminous cover crop plowed down every third year and a coat of manure every 
second or third year will be a good system of manuring. In this section of country, 
where dairying is practised on an extensive scale, there is an abundance of manure 
on nearly every farm, and liberal applications could be applied to the orchard annu- 
ally without fear of depleting the fertility of the fami for the benefit of the orchard. 

The use of artificial fertilizers should be undertaken very carefuUy, and too 
much emphasis cannot be put. upon the fact that artificial fertilizers will give their 
best results only when used along with farmyard manure, and that it should never 
be entirely replaced with fertilizers ; rather, they should be used in conjunction with 
farmyard manure. Furthermore, the full results of fertilizers can be obtained only 
when they are used in conjunction with the best of cultivation, consequently, the 
presence of humus and thorough cultivation should always be associated with the 
use of artificial fertilizers. 

In those orchards that are receiving liberal applications of farmyard manure 
annually, and where leguminous cover crops are sown, there will scarcely be any 
need to add nitrogen in any other form. Too much nitrogen will produce a strong, 
succulent growth of wood and leaves too late in the fall and will tend to retard the 
inaturity of the fruit and to lessen its quality. 

Phosphoric acid and potash are the only other two constituents of plant food 
liable to be deficient in the soil. Potash in the form of muriate of potash or sulphate 
'of potash should be applied at the rate of from 150 to 200 pounds per acre, and 
phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphate, or Thomas phosphate or basic slag, 
should be applied at the rate of from 300 to 400 pounds per acre. A good plan 
would be to divide the orchard into four parts and apply the potash and phosphoric 


11 

a-cid mixed to one part, the potash alone to one part, the phosphoric alone to onfe 
part, and no artificial fertilizer on the other part. By this means some idea of the 
requirements of the soil may be learnt and the beneficial results from each fertilizer 
together and separately may be studied. The fertilizer should be applied broad- 
cast over the ground, preferably immediately after plowing, and cultivated in with 
a disc, spring-toothed cultivator or spike-tooth harrow. Potash and phosphoric 
acid fertilizers may be applied at any time through the season. 

Eeady mixed fertilizers are not recommended at all. 

Thinning. — ^This is an item of orchard practice unheard of in this district. 
The Department of Agriculture has thinned the apples on a few trees in several 
places near Morrisburg this season (1911) as a demonstration and experiment. 
The apples were left one to a spur and four or five inches apart, and results have 
shown a more even quality, larger size and better coloring of fruit. The other 
advantages of thinning the fruit on the trees are : — 

1. It regulates the crop that the tree has to mature, and lessens the liability of 
splitting and breaking of limbs. 

2. It gives the tree a better chance to mature its fruit buds for next season's 
crop, and so has a tendency to produce crops every year, instead of a heavy crop one 
year and none the next. 

3. It lessens the labor of handling culls at picking time. 

4. It relieves the tree of the work of maturing these culls. 

The price of thinning has been computed at five cents per barrel, and this price 
alone is saved in the reduced number of culls to handle. 

The thinning may be done at any time during the summer, but is best done 
when the apples are about an inch in diameter, as then the dormant fruit buds have 
a good chance to develop. The fall apples may be left until they have developed, so 
that the fruit taken ofi" can be sold as early cooking apples, and in this way a little 
remuneration may be obtained to pay for the work of thinning. The method is to 
first take ofl: all the injured, small and ill-formed fruit, then to leave only one apple 
to a spur and to thin them to from four to five inches apart ; or to leave two apples 
on one spur and none on the next, and not leave the clusters of two closer than at 
least six inches to the next cluster. 

Picking and Packing. 

Here is a vital point in the upbuilding of the fruit industry. The respect and 
confidence of the market is gained only by the quality of the picking, packing and 
grading, and according to such will the reputation of a fruit district as a whole be 
established. The picking should be done by careful and intelligent men. Long 
ladders should be dispensed with as much as possible and step-ladders used in their 
place. A specially constructed apple basket should be used, and in the picking the 
welfare of the tree must be borne in mind as well as the gathering of the fruit in 
the quickest possible manner. Care must be taken not to pull off or knock off any 
more fruit spurs than is absolutely unavoidable, nor to break down branches, and a 
srood deal of care is always necessary in putting a ladder up into a tree. 

Nearly all the fruit in this district that is sold for local consumption is not 
packed at all, but simply put into some receptacle and taken to town. The most of 
the packing for shipment is done by apple buyers who realize the value of good 
packing and try to conform to the laws regarding packing and grading. The 'barrel 
is the only package used here. It was the first kind of package used, and the 
markets have been built up by it, and all the facilities for handling have become 


12 

adapted to its use, so that it will be hard to displace. There is a permanent place 
for the barrel package, although the box package should be introduced for high 
grade and fancy fruit of the Mcintosh and Fameuse types. For these varieties 
the box package is specially adapted, as it gives a distinctive feature to this class 
of fruit, and a trade may be catered to "w*hich is not ordinarily reached by the 
barrel. 

CO-OPERATION'. 

Purchasing Supplies. — ^The purchasing of nursery stock heretofore has been 
done through agents. Up to the present all the spray material used was either made 
at home or purchased through the District Eepresentative, but no doubt as soon as 
large quantities are used agents will be sent into the field to solicit orders. 

Co-operation is a remedy for many of the ills of this method of purchase. The 
advantages of buying nursery stock under a system of co-operation was explained 
under the head of Nursery Stock. The advantages of buying co-operatively, other 
orchard supplies, such as spraying machinery, spray material, boxes, barrels, and 
other orchard appliances, are just as great. A body of farmers of one community 
can get a cheaper rate by buying in large quantities, can get a uniform article, and 
when buying an article about the merits or demerits of which they are not familiar, 
can employ a man who understands the commodity in question, and thus save them, 
many dollars by buying the exact thing they require. 

Selling. — Co-operation in the selling end is a sound business proposition, both 
to the grower and to the buyer. As stated previously, uniformity in grade and pack 
is most important, and with a community of small fruit-growers this is impossible 
to get unless the work is done under the supervision and control of an association. 

The following are a few of the advantages in co-operation for selling purposes : 

1. A better price can be realized, and for the following reasons. 

2. A better and more uniform grade of quality and packing is put up. 

3. Large quantities of an even grade can be put on the market which will 
attract the attention of buyers, most of whom find it more profitable to buy in large 
quantities. 

4. A good deal of the middle-men's profit will find its way to the producer, by 
the elimination of many small buyers and jobbers. 

5. A good deal of time, trouble and worry is saved to the individual grower by 
having one man to find the market for a lot of fruit instead of many men looking 
for a market, each with a small amount of fruit. 

6. An association brings the growers into closer touch with each other where 
they can compare notes, and discuss their individual troubles and experiences to 
the mutual benefit of all. 

Co-operation cannot be too strongly emphasized, as the experiences of associa- 
tions in the handling of fruit in other parts of Ontario has definitely proven that it 
is a good thing in practice and will work out to the advantage of the entire district. 

Most of the fruit shipped from this district is handled by independent buyers 
who buy for as low as they possibly can, and some irresponsible men have bought 
more fruit than they can handle, have let it fall ofE the trees, and then refused to 
pay for it. Therefore let it be urged upon the farmers of Dundas, Stormont and 
Glengarry Counties that co-operation in the fruit business is one of the essentials 
of success and a foundation for a thriving apple industry. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. 


Serial 
No. Date. 

168 Oct. 1908 

169 Feb. 1909 

170 Mar. 1909 

171 April 1909 


172 


May 


1909 


173 


Oct. 


1909 


174 


Dec, 


1909 


175 


Dec. 


1909 


176 


Dec. 


1909 


177 


Dec. 


1909 


178 


Dec. 


1909 


179 


Feb. 


1910 


180 


April 


1910 


181 


June 


1910 


182 


July 


1910 


183 


Aug. 


1910 


184 


Nov. 


1910 


185 


Nov. 


1910 


186 


Dec. 


1910 


187 


Jan. 


1911 


188 


April 


1911 


189 


May 


1911 


190 


May 


1911 


191 


June 


1911 


192 


July 


1911 


193 


Nov. 


1911 


194 


Dec. 


1911 


195 


Jan. 


1912 


196 


Jan. 


1912 


197 


Feb. 


1912 


198 


Feb. 


1912 


199 


Feb. 


1912 


200 


April 


1912 


201 


May 


1912 


202 


May 


1912 


203 


May 


1912 


204 


June 


1912 


205 


Sept. 


1912 


206 


Nov. 


1912 


207 


Dec. 


1912 


208 


Jan. 


1913 


209 March 1913 

210 March 1913 

211 March 1913 

212 April 1913 


Title. Author. 

The Perennial Sow Thistle and some other 

Weed Pests J- E. Howitt. 

Legume Bacteria: Further Studies- of Nitro- f S. F. Edwards, 

gen Accumulation in the Leguminosae . . \ B. Barlow. 

f J W Mitchell 

Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | -^^ q "vvalker. 

' Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Bethune. 

^. .^ X- TT 4. 1,1 r J. E Howitt. 

Fungus Diseases Affecting Vegetables | j, w. Eastham. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) ... Dairy School. 

Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay? W. H. Day. 

Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees ^- H. Jones. 

f H. L. Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash ■! l. Caesar. 

Character and Treatment of Swamp or j W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils I A. E. Slater. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 

(No. 147 revised) Fruit Branch 

„, ^ „ , , . f R. Harcourt. 

Flour and Breadmaking | m. A. Purdy. 

The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch. 

Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Graham. 

Bee Diseases In Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised { ^ L.^Furmer. 

Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

Onions A. McMeans. 

Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

[ Peach Diseases F. M. Clement. 

/ Peach Growing in Ontario L. Caesar. 

Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . f 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making j Staff of Dairy School. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . | Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm { 

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions f J. H. Hare. 

in Ontarib County \ T. A. Benson. 

Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavitz. 

Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. P. M. Clement. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters. . . Fruit Branch 

(No. 179 revised.) 
Orchard Surveys in Dundas, Stormont and 

Glengarry F. S. Reeves. 


I 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 
BULLETIN 213 

(A Revised Edition of No. 197) 


BEE DISEASES 

In Ontario 

By 
MORLEY PETTIT, Provincial Apiarist 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, APRIL 1913 


BULLETIN 213] 


APRIL, 1913 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 

(A Revised Edition of No. 197) 


Bee Diseases in Ontario 

By MORLEY PETTIT 

Provincial Apiarist 


Much dissatisfaction with bee-keeping as a business is caused by so-called 
" bad luck," really due to a definite bee disease which any beekeeper can learn to 
cure. Bees are quite as liable to disease as any other live stock, and to be able to 
treat such disease intelligently is quite necessary to success. 


A Healthy Colony. 


Bee-moths are often blamed for the ravages due to disease ; but moths never 
destroy a healthy, normal colony, as they only feed on the deserted combs after the 
bees are nearly all gone. Heavy winter losses can often be attributed to disease. 
In fact, whenever a colony is not doing well the exact cause of its failure should 
be carefully sought. 


3 

On the other hand, disease often makes its appearance in the best colonies 
in the apiary, because infection is usually carried by robbing, and that is gen- 
erally done by strong colonies. If not checked on the start it soon spreads through 
the whole apiary, and from it to other apiaries in the neighborhood. 

The inspectors of apiaries can do a great deal for the health of bees in Ontario ; 
but to be of real value their work must be supplemented by the earnest efforts of 
individual beekeepers. Every one should be his own inspector, carefully examining 
every comb of every colony in the apiary at least once a year, remembering that 
it is far better to detect it on the start in strong colonies than to wait until they 
are practically ruined and the disease has spread through the whole neighborhood. 
Only one cell of infectious disease makes it necessary to treat even the best colony 
in the apiary. 


,.-^!i::..i i -i4fe.vJJ>iS 


A Sinicoe County Apiary. 

When a case of infectious disease is suspected the beekeeper must notify the 
Minister of Agriculture, Toronto, or the Provincial Apiarist, Ontario Agricul- 
tural College, Guelph, who will see that the case is attended to as soon as possible. 

In writing it is best to give full particulars, such as township, concession and 
lot, numher of colonies, names and addresses of neighbor beekeepers and size of 
their apiaries, probable extent of disease territory, etc., so the Provincial Apiarist 
can judge the amount of time inspector will need to spend in the neighborhood. 
Personal information will be considered strictly confidential. If the case cannot 
have inmiediate attention by the Inspector, the 'beekeeper should go ahead and treat 
the diseased colonies according to directions given in this bulletin. 

Examining an Apiary foe Disease. 

The diseases which cause the most damage in Ontario attack the developing 
brood, causing much of it to die in the comb, and so reducing it that the colony 
soon dwindles from lack of young bees to replace the old. 


When examining an apiary for disease the prime consideration is to avoid 
robbing. The best time is during a good honey flow as early as possible in the 
season. 

It is necessary to have a good smoker, a hive tool for taking out combs, and 
a supply of wooden toothpicks for testing the brood. 

In opening the hive just enough smoke should be used to keep the bees in sub- 
jection. Eemove each comb in turn from the brood-chamber and examine the 
brood. It is best to sit on a box close to the hive with your back to the sun, and 
hold the comb so that it will shine into the cells, and throw a strong light directly 
on the lower sides and bottoms of the cells. If there is no disease, the empty cells 
will be bright and clean, and the uncapped larvae will be plump in form and of 
a pearly white color. At first a number of cells of capped brood should be opened 
with the pick, until you are ouite familiar with the outward appearance of healthy 
capped brood. Cappings which to any but the ibest-trained eye appear quite healthy 
often cover dead larvae. When diseased cells are present they are quite frequently 
found around the lower edge of the comb. If any of the brood cappings appear 
darker than the rest, or are flat, sunken, or perforated, they should be opened to 
see whether the brood they cover is dead. Healthy brood is sometimes found under 
flat, or perforated cappings; but there is a difference in appearance which experi- ' 
ence soon teaches one to detect. Brood sometimes develops without ever being 
fully capped. This is no indication of disease. When each hive is finished the 
pick used there should be left in the hive, and if any honey is daubed on hands or 
tools they must be washed thoroughly (before opening the next hive. 

There are three brood diseases prevalent in the apiaries of Ontario ; American 
Foul Brood, European Foul Brood, and Sacbrood, formerly called Starved or 
Pickled Brood. All three are infectious. The first two will spread and do great 
damage if not checked; the last does no serious harm in Ontario apiaries. 

Distribution. 

American Foul Brood is pretty evenly distributed all over that portion of 
Ontario lying south and west of the Trent Valley. European Foul Brood is spread- 
ing rapidly from three main centres of infection, so that the following counties are 
now more or less diseased: Carleton, Russell, Prescott, Renfrew, Lanark, North- 
umberland, Hastings, Prince Edward and Welland, with a few cases in Peterboro 
and Lincoln. 

These two diseases are costing the Province of Ontario hundreds of thousands 
of dollars annually, not only in loss of bees and honey and of fruit, clover seed and 
buckwheat, but also in their disheartening effect on the men engaged in the indus- 
tries concerned. 

Much, however, is being done by the Department of Agriculture towards re- 
storing a well-grounded confidence in beekeeping as a business by various methods 
of instruction. To be effectual this government work must be supplemented by an 
earnest effort on the part of beekeepers themselves to keep their bees in a healthy 
condition. American Foul Brood must be reported and treated whenever discovered. 
So far as is known the race of bees does not affect the virulence of this disease. It 
is different with European Foul Brood, which simply cannot be cured in common 
black bees. Those who introduce Italian queens to their colonies ahead of the 
disease, or even at the time of treating, are saved heavy loss and are able to build 
lip a good business. It is no more possible to check the spread of European Foul 
Brood among black bees than it is to stop a fire that is sweeping over a town of dry 


wooden buildings. But, as in a fire-swept town, progressive men will rebuild better 
than before, so in the disease-swept counties progressive beekeepers are now 
making more money than ever by the use of the well-bred Italian bees which they 
were compelled to adopt. 

American Foul Brood. 

This disease is caused by bacteria known to scientists as Bacillus Larvae (not 
B. Alvei, as was formerly supposed). It reaches the healthy young larvae by means 
of infected food unsuspectingly fed to them by the nurse bees. In most cases the 
larva dies when nearly ready to seal up, and most of the cells containing infected 
larvae are capped. The dead larva softens, settles to the lower side of the cell 
in a shapeless mass, at first white or yellow, changing to coffee-color and brown. 
At this stage it becomes glutinous, so that if it is picked with a toothpick the con- 


piG_ 1. — American Foul-Brood comb, showing irregular patches of sunken cappings and 
scales. The position of the comb indicates the best way to view the scales. (U.S. 
Dept. of Ag. Far. Bui. 442.) 

tents will rope out half an inch or so when the pick is slowly withdrawn. It ad- 
heres to the cell so it cannot be lifted out entire. It has the odor of a poor quality 
of glue. When the larva dries it forms a tightly adhesive scale, of very dark brown 
color. 

" Pupae also may die of this disease, in which case they, too, dry down (fig. 2, 
0, d), became ropy, and have the characteristic odor and color. The tongue fre- 
quently adheres to the upper side wall, and often remains there even after the 
pupa has dried down to a scale. Younger unsealed larvae are sometimes affected. 
Usually the disease attacks only worker brood, but occasional cases are found in 
which queen and drone brood are diseased." — {U. S. Dept. of Ag. Farmers' Bui. 
442.) 

Where the infected larvae are capped the cappings turn a darker color and 
become flat or sunken; the workers, perceiving that something is wrong, usually 
start to tear off the capping, but, discovering the condition of the contents, they 


5 


generally leave it with a small perforation in the centre until quite dry, then the 
capping is removed, and in time honey may be stored in the cells containing the 
scales of disease. The millions of disease spores then float out into the honey, 
which becomes a medium for carrying the disease to other healthy larvae by 
robbing, in the same or some other apiary. Some of the honey is also carried into 
the supers, to make room for alterations in the brood nest, and is marketed in the 
form of bottled or section honey. It goes into many homes especially in towns 
and cities. The wooden sides of the sections, and many of the empty bottles, or 
washings from them, are thrown out by housekeepers and cleaned up by bees of the 
neighborhood, and the disease is carried home to their healthy brood. This is 
why our inspectors find more disease in the apiaries around towns and cities than 
elsewhere. 


Fig. 2. — American Foul Brood: a, &, /, normal sealed cells; c, ;, sunken cappings, show- 
ing perforations; g, sunken capping not perforated; h, I, m, n, q, r, larvae affected 
by disease; e, i, p, s, scales formed from dried-down larvae; d, o, pupee affected by 
disease. Three times natural size. (U.S. Dept. Ag. Far. Bui. 442.) 


The Treatment. 

Now, to be cured of this disease a colony must be freed from all this infected 
brood, comb and honey. To do this we simply take it away. But in the operation 
some precautions are necessary. We must see that the colony will get healthy food 
as soon as the unhealthy food is taken away, and have means for building new 
comb at once. So the operation should be performed during a honey flow, and to 
make it perfectly sure it is a good plan to insert a division board feeder of sugar 
syrup. We must take precautions against starting robbing, or causing the treated 
colony to scatter to other hives or swarm out, be lost, and carry infection to other 
places. So the operation should be performed in the evening, when the bees are 
settling down for the night, and the entrance should be covered with queen-exclud- 


ing metal to hold the queen in case of swarming out the next morning. A regular 
queen-excluder laid on the bottom board under the brood chamber will answer the 
latter purpose. It would be even better to clip the queeni so she cannot fly, then 
leave the excluder off. They should also be given a clustering space to occupy, as 
in the case of a natural swarm. Whenever bees are disturbed in their hives they 
will fill their honey sacs with honey from the comb. As this will happen when the 
hive is being treated, and some of this diseased honey might be stored in the new 
combs, it is necessary to make them eat it before they can find a place to put it. To 
make sure of this, not one bit of comb of any kind can be left in the hive. Even 
sheets of foundation are unsafe, as some cells can be so quickly drawn out, enough 
to deposit a little infected honey. The hive must be quite empty so far as comb or 
foundation is concerned, except that very narrow starters of foundation, not more 
than one-half inch wide, may be placed in the frames to indicate where the combs 
are to be built. Thus the diseased honey will be consumed in wax secretion before 
any of it can be deposited in the hive. 

Method of Tkeatment. 

When there is a good honey flow on, the colonies should first be prepared for 
treating by removing from the hive every comb which does not contain brood. This 


Fig. 3. — The ropiness of American Foul Brood. (U.S. Dept. Ag. Far. Bui. 442.) 

will include all the super combs and probably two or more next the walls in the 
brood chamber. These must be put under cover immediately and destroyed as 
soon as possible. The remaining brood combs should be loosened and spread apart 
to facilitate rapid handling later. When all diseased colonies are thus prepared 
during the day it will he a short matter to finish the treatment in the evening. 

When bees have nearly stopped flying for the night, each prepared colony is 
treated as follows: First remove it from its stand, then set in its place a clean, 
disinfected hive containing clean frames with half-inch starters, and, if convenient, 
a division board feeder with thin sugar syrup. If the queen is not clipped the en- 
trance of this hive must be covered with queen-excluding metal. Now shake the 
bees from the combs of the old hive into the new ; but if any fresh nectar flies out 
in shaking it will be necessary to brush instead of shaking. Get these combs im- 
mediately under cover, and clean up very carefully any honey that may be around, 
so that robbers from healthy colonies cannot carry home disease. 

When the diseased colonies are weak in bees, two or three of them should be 
united to form one good colony with which to start the cure. But in doing this, 
diseased colonies must be united with their next door neighbor, and not carried to 
another part of the apiary, as flying bees will be sure to return and may enter ad- 
joining healthy colonies, carrying disease. 


You have now made an artificial swarm, which must be given the conditions 
a new swarm likes, or it will leave and carry its disease to parts unknown, or perhaps 
into some healthy hive in the apiary. A new swarm likes plenty of ventilation 
and shade and also plenty of clustering room. To satisfy this natural desire it is 
sometimes necessary to place an empty hive under the one containing the starters 
for a few days. This simple precaution will generally prevent the swarming out 
which so often happens in treating foul brood. 

All combs from the supers as well as from the brood-chamber of the diseased 
colony must be either burned or melted and boiled thoroughly before the wax is 
fi:. to use again. The honey that is removed is entirely unfit for bee feed, and 
should be burned or buried deep enough to be out of the reach of any bees. 

On the third evening after the first operation the starters and what combs 
have been built must all be removed. This time the bees should be given full 
sheets of foundation, and the cure is complete. 

If directions have been followed carefully and thoroughly, the above treat- 
ment should be successful. To make sure, however, the brood must be examined 
again in about three weeks and again the following season. 

If the disease reappears in any colonies they must be treated again. 

Saving Brood. 

Brood from badly diseased colonies is of no value, and dangerous, and should 
be burned, buried or otherwise destroyed at once. Brood from colonies having only 
a few cells diseased may be placed over an average colony slightly diseased, and 
the queen caged. In ten days treat as given above. 

Saving Combs, 

It is never safe to use super-combs that have been on diseased colonies. Even 
though they may appear white and clean, germs of the disease are apt to lurk in 
them from year to year. To melt these down is no serious loss, as the wax will 
more than make foundation for new ones. 

Disinfecting. 

Hives which have formerly contained diseased colonies, or in which diseased 
combs have been stored or carried, should be burned over inside with a gasoline 
or oil torch. 

Fall Treatment. 

If the disease is discovered late in the season, and the colony is still strong, 
leave it until November, take the diseased combs away, and supply honey from a 
healthy colony, in full sealed combs. Be sure that the combs are all sealed, and 
that they are from a colony which has no disease. 

If the colony is not strong enough to be worth this treatment it should be 
destroyed at once, as one great source of spread is the spring robbing out of combs 
left by the winter death of such colonies. 


8 


EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD. 

Until 1907 the only infectious brood disease known to exist in Ontario was the 
one already described. But another then made its appearance. It is called 
European Foul Brood (Sometimes "Black Brood"). 

European Foul Brood has destroyed the apiaries in great areas of different, 
states in the Republic to the south of us. It is now known to be rampant in at 
least nine counties of Ontario. In one way it is much more to be dreaded than 
American Foul Brood, because it runs its course and destroys an apiary much more 
rapidly, and because the method of spread is not fully understood. 

As was stated above, nothing but the introduction of Italian queens by the 
beekeepers concerned will check its spread. 


Pig. 4. — European Foul Brood: a, j, k, normal sealed cells; 6, c, d, e, g, i I, m, p, g, 
larvae affected by disease; /, h, n, o. dried-down larvae or scales. Three times 
natural size. (U.S. Dept. Ag. Par. Bui. 442.) 

The best description of this disease which has been published is found in U. S. 
Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin 442, " The Treatment of Bee Dis- 
eases," by E. F. Phillips, Ph.D. It is as follows : " European foul hrood was 
formerly called Talack brood,' or 'iSTew York bee disease.' The name TDlack brood' was 
a poor one, for the color of the dead brood is rarely black, or even very dark brown. 
European foul brood usually attacks the larva at an earlier stage of its development 
than American foul brood, and while it is still curled up at the base of the cell 
(Fig . 4, r). A small percentage of larvae dies after capping, but sometimes quite 
young larvae are attacked (Fig. 4, e, m). Sunken and perforated cappings are 
sometimes observed, just as in American foul brood (Fig. 3, c, g, j). The earliest 
indication of the disease is a slight yellow or gray discoloration and uneasy move- 
ment of the larva in the cell. The larva loses its well-rounded, opaque appearance 
and becomes slightly translucent, so that the tracheae may become prominent 
(Fig. 4, &), giving the larva a clearly segmented appearance. The larva is usually 


flaiteaea against the base of the cell, but may turn so that the ends of the larva 
are to the rear of the cell (Fig. 4 /?.), or may fall away from the base (Fig. 4, e, g, 
I). Later the color changes to a decided yellow or gray and the translucency is 
lost (Fig. 4, q, h). The yellow color may be taken as the chief characteristic of 
this disease. The dead larva appears as a moist, somewhat collapsed mass, giving 
thfi appearance of being melted. When the remains have become almost dry (Fi''. 
4^ c), the tracheae sometimes become conspicuous again, this time by retaining 
their shape, while the rest of the body content dries around them. Finally, all 
that is left of the larva is a grayish-brown scale against the base of the cell (Fig. 4, 
/, h), or a shapeless mass on the lower side wall if the larva did not retain its 
normal position (Fig. 4, n, o). Very few scales are black. The scales are not 
adhesive, but are easily removed, and the bees carry out a great many in their 
efforts to clean house. 

" Decaying larvae which have died of this disease are usually not ropy as in 
American foul brood, but a slight ropiness is sometimes observed. There is usually 
little odor in European foul brood, but sometimes a sour odor is present, which re- 
minds one of yeast fermentation. This disease attacks drone and queen larvae* 
almost as quickly as those of the workers. 

'European foul brood is more destructive during the spring and early summer 
than at other times, often entirely disappearing during late summer and autumn, 
or daring a heavy honey flow._ Italian bees seem to be better able to resist the 
ravages of this disease than any other race. The disease at times spreads with 
startling rapidity and is most destructive. Where it is prevalent a considerably 
larger percentage of colonies is affected than is usual for American foul brood. 
This disease is very variable in its symptoms and other manifestations and is often 
a puzzle to the beekeeper," 

One exception, however, will be taken to the above description. In most cases 
examined in Ontario the odor is found to be very pronounced and offensive, like 
decayed fish; in fact, on a warm, moist morning it is noticed on entering the 
apiary, and. when a diseased comb is held up for inspection, is almost sickening. 

Use Same Treatment and Italianize. 

The same treatment already described for American Foul Brood is effectual, 
if appKed to the whole apiary at once. But the cure is only permanent when pure- 
bred Italian queens are introduced to all black or hybrid stocks. It is quite im- 
possible to cure an apiary of black bees of European Foul Brood without intro- 
ducing pure Italian queens to all colonies. 

We know of no reason why this plague should not sweep over Ontario as it 
has over most of the United States, If it does all apiaries of black bees will be prac- 
tically destroyed within the next few years. Its progress in the districts mentioned 
above has been appalling. Xo Grovemment expenditure can touch the situation 
without the co-operation of the men themselves whose property is in danger. There 
is a remedy, however, right to hand. Pure-bred leather-colored Italian bees are 
almost immune to European Foul Brood. 

It is very important, then, that all apiaries, especialhj in or near infected 

neighborhoods, should he Italianized at once, without waiting for a destructive 

outbreak of disease. 

*The tendency of tbls disease to attack queen larvje is a serious drawback in 
treatment. Frequently the bees of a diseased colony attempt to supersede their queen, 
but the larvae in the queen cells often die, leaving the colony hopelessly queenless. 
The colony is thus depleted very rapidly. 


10 

SACBEOOD. 

A disease slightly resembling Foul Brood is called by some " Starved Brood," 
and by others "Pickled Brood." It has recently been described and named by 
White "Sacbrood." The most positive difference in the diagnosis of this disease 
is the absence of ropiness and of the glue-pot smell, which are always found in 
American Foul Brood. In Sacbrood the larva decays from the inside, leaving 
the skin tough and in its natural shape; in European Foul Brood or American 
Foul Brood, the skin of the larva softens as the contents bgcome glutinous, and 
all the natural wrinkles become smooth as the mass settles to the lower side of 
the cell. In Sacbrood the larva often dries up so as to become loose in the cell and 
fall out when the comb is inverted. In American Foul Brood it always cements 
fast to the lower cell wall, so it cannot be removed without tearing the cell. Euro- 
pean Foul Brood attacks the larva generally at an earlier stage in its existence 
than Sacbrood. 

" Sacbrood is an infectious disease of the brood of bees caused by an infect- 
ing agent that is so small, or of such a nature, that it will pass through the pores 
of a Berkefeld filter." (U.S. Dept. of Ag., Bureau of Ent, Cir. No. 169.) 

Ee-queening with vigorous queens from other apiaries will often effect a cure 
and it often disappears of its own accord, 

SoiiE Peecautions. 

Since disease is so widely distributed some precautions should be observed by 
all beekeepers. 

1. Great care should be taken in spring to prevent robbing, particularly if 
any diseased colonies are in the apiary or neighborhood. 

2. Since honey is the means of transmitting disease it is a safe rule to never 
feed honey to the bees. Syrup made from granulated sugar is quite as good as 
the best of honey for winter stores. 

3. So far as possible supply your home market with honey, to avoid the danger 
of infected honey being shipped in. 

4. When buying queens it is a safe rule to destroy the cages, candy, and worker 
bees that accompany them, using a fresh cage for introducing. 

5. Persons buying bees from any beekeeper in Ontario, can get information 
from the Provincial Apiarist as to the condition of the apiary in question. 


INSPECTION OF APIAEIES. 

The Inspection of Apiaries is provided for by an Act passed by the Legislative 
Assembly of the Province of Ontario which allows the appointment of what inspec- 
tors are required by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council upon the recommendation 
of the Minister of Agriculture. The duties and powers of these inspectors are also 
defined, and provision is made to ensure the prompt reporting and careful treat- 
ment of cases of disease. 


11 

The following is a copy of the Act: 

An Act for the Suppression of Foul Brood Among Bees. 

1. This Act may be known as The Foul Brood Act. 

2. — (1) The Lieutenant-Governor in Council upon the recommendation of the Minis- 
ter of Agriculture may from time to time appoint one or more Inspectors of Apiaries 
to enforce this Act. 

(2) The Inspector shall, if so required, produce the certificate of his appointment 
on entering upon any premises in the discharge of his duties. 

(3) The remuneration to be paid to an Inspector under this Act shall be determined 
by order of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, and shall be payable out of any sum 
appropriated by the Legislature for the enforcement of this Act. 

3. — (1) The Inspector shall, whenever so directed by the Minister, visit any locality 
in Ontario and examine any apiary to which the Minister directs him, for the purpose of 
ascertaining if the disease known as " foul brood " exists in such apiary. 

(2) If the Inspector finds that foul brood exists in a virulent or malignant type, 
he shall order all colonies of bees so affected, together with the hives occupied by them, 
and the contents of such hives and all tainted appurtenances that cannot be disinfected 
to be immediately destroyed by fire under his personal direction and superintendence. 

(3) Where the Inspector who shall be the sole judge thereof finds that the disease 
exists, but only in a milder type and in its incipient stage, and is being or may be 
treated successfully, and the Inspector has reason to believe that it may be entirely 
cured, then he may omit to destroy or order the destruction of such colonies and hives. 

4. The Inspector may order the owner or possessor of any bees dwelling in box or 
immovable frame hives to transfer them to movable frame hives within a specified time, 
and in default the Inspector may destroy, or order the destruction of such hives and 
the bees dwelling therein. 

5. Any owner or possessor of diseased colonies of bees, or of any infected appliances 
for bee-keeping, who knowingly sells or barters or gives away such diseased colonies 
or infected appliances shall incur a penalty of not less than $50 or more than $100, 
or he may be imprisoned for any term not exceeding two months. 

6. Any person whose bees have been destroyed or treated for foul brood, who sells 
or offers for sale any bees, hives or appurtenances of any kind, after such destruction 
or treatment, and before being authorized by the Inspector so to do or who exposes in 
his b€e-yard, or elsewhere, any infected comb, honey, or other infected thing, or conceals 
the fact that said disease exists among his bees, shall incur a penalty of not less than 
$20 and not more than $50, or he may be imprisoned for a term not exceeding two months. 

7. Any owner or possessor of bees who refuses to allow the Inspector to freely 
examine bees, or the premises in which they are kept, or who refuses to destroy the 
infected bees and appurtenances, or to permit them to be destroyed when so directed by 
the Inspector, shall, on the complaint of the Inspector, incur a penalty of not less than 
$25 and not more than $50 for the first offence, and not less than $50 and not more than 
$100 for the second and any subsequent offence, and the convicting Justice shall by the 
conviction order the said owner or possessor forthwith to carry out the directions of 
the Inspector. 

8. Where such owner or possessor of bees disobeys the directions of the said Inspec- 
tor, or offers resistance to or obstructs him, a Justice of the Peace may, upon the com- 
plaint of the Inspector cause a sufficient number of special constables to be sworn in, 
who shall, under the directions of the Inspector, proceed to the premises of such owner 
or possessor and assist the Inspector to seize all the diseased colonies and infected 
appurtenances and burn them forthwith, and if necessary the Inspector or constables 
may arrest the owner or possessor and bring him before a Justice of the Peace to be 
dealt with according to the provisions of the preceding section. 


9. Before proceeding against any person before a Justice of the Peace, the Inspector 
shall read over to such person the provisions of this Act or shall cause a copy thereof 
to be delivered to him. 

10. Every owner or possessor of bees and any other person who is aware of the 
existence of foul brood either in his own apiary or elsewhere shall immediately notify 
the Minister of the existence of such disease and in default of so doing shall incur a 
penalty of $5. 

11. Each Inspector shall report to the Minister as to the inspection of any apiary 
in such form and manner as the Minister may direct, and all reports shall be filed in the 
Department of Agriculture, and shall be made public as the Minister may direct or 
upon order of the Assembly. 

12. The Ontario Summary Convictions Act shall apply to all prosecutions for offences 
against this Act. 

13. The Act passed in the 6th year of the reign of His late Majesty King Edward 
the Seventh, and section 27 of the Act passed in the 10th year of the said reign, 
chaptered 26, are repealed. 

Inspectors'' Duties. 

It will be seen by Sec. 3 that it is an inspector's duty to work under the direc- 
tion of the Minister of Agriculture or the one he may appoint to administer the 
Act. Where foul brood is found he is to destroy by fire the worst cases, especially 
where the beekeeper is not making a successful effort to cure. It is only in cases 
where " the inspector has reason to believe that it may be entirely cured " that he 
" may, in his discretion, omit to destroy." 


Teansfeering Bees. 

Persons having bees in the kind of hives described in Sec. 4, will make it easier 
for the inspectors and themselves as well by making, preparations for trans- 
ferring as soon as possible. The following is one method of performing this opera- 
tion: 

The best time to transfer bees out of box hives into frame hives is at the 
beginning of the swarming season. Choose a time when as many bees as possible 
are in the field and nicely out of the way. About 10 a.m. will probably be the best 
time if it is a warm, still day. The following appliance will be needed: a good 
smoker, a bee veil, a hive tool of some sort such as a screwdriver or a wall scraper 
used by paperhangers, and the new hive, preferably ten-frame Langstroth with 
wired frames filled with sheets of foundation. 

Blow a little smoke in at the entrance to the hive, tip the old hive over side- 
ways and blow in more smoke to drive the bees down among the combs ; let it stand 
upside down to one side and place the new hive where it formerly stood, with the 
entrance exactly in the place of the old one. Put down a newspaper in front of 
the new hive with one edge under the entrance. The bees returning with pollen 
and honey now alight and go into the empty hive. Place a small box over the 
inverted hive large enough to receive the whole cluster of bees. Now drum on the 
sides of the hive with a couple of sticks until the bees run into the box above, 
■which should be removed as soon as a majority of them have gone up into it and 
placed to one side until the bees cluster like a swarm; then dump the bees down 
on the newspaper in front of the new hive and let them run in in the same manner 
that a new swarm is hived. It will be best to watch for the queen, because if the 


13 

queen is not with them they will all return to the old hive. Set the old hive up- 
right on its hottom board just to one side of the new hive and let it stand there for 
two weeJis until nearly all the brood is hatched, then transfer the bees from it again 
into the new hive. At that time the old combs can be taken out and melted down 
into beeswax. 

Disposing of Bees or Appliances. 

Section 5 puts a heavy penalty on disposing of diseased bees or appliances in 
any way, and, according to Section 6, persons whose bees have been treated or 
destroyed for disease shall not dispose of any bees or appliances whatever without 
permission from the inspector, or expose in the apiary or elsewhere any infected 
material or honey on penalty of fine or imprisonment. 

Information Concerning Location of Disease. 

Sections 7, 8 and 9 give inspectors power to act. Section 10 requires every 
person who is aware of the existence of foul brood to report the same to the Minis- 
ter of Agriculture, and Section 11 requires the inspectors to report on all their work 
to the same authority. 


AMEEICAN FOUL BEOOD. 

From the reports of the inspectors of apiaries of recent years, we find that 
American Foul Brood is prevalent in the following townships. This does not mean 
that townships not mentioned in this list are guaranteed to be free from this 
disease, because the apiaries of Ontario have not all been inspected as yet: 

BRANT: Brantford, Dumfries South. 

BRUCE: Arran, Brant, Bruce, Carrick, Culross, Elderslie, Greenock, Kincardine, 
Kinloss, Paisley, Saugeen. 

DUPFERIN: Garafraxa East, Luther East, Mono. 

DUNDAS : Winchester. 

DURHAM: Darlington. 

ELGIN: Dorchester South, Malahide. 

ESSEX: Maidstone, Rochester, Sandwich East, Sandwich West. 

FRONTENAC: Kingston Township. 

GREY: Artemesia, Collingwood, Derby, Euphrasia, Glenelg, Keppel, Normanby, 
Osprey, St. Vincent, Sullivan, Sydenham. 

HALDIMAND: Cayuga, Dunn, Rainham, Walpole. 

HALTON: Esquesing, Nelson, Trafalgar. 

HURON: Grey, Morris, Turnberry, Wawanosh West. 

KENT: Harwich, Howard, Romney, Tilbury East. 

LAMBTON: Bosanquet, Moore, Warwick. 

LANARK: Lanark. 

LEEDS: Bastard, Kitley, Yonge. 

LINCOLN: Grantham, Grimsbv. 

MANITOULIN: Bidwell, Gordon. 

MIDDLESEX: Adelaide, Delaware, Lobo, London, McGillivray, Westminster, Wil- 
liams East, Williams West. 

MUSKOKA: Draper, Muskoka. 

NORFOLK: Charlotteville, Townsend, Walsingham, Windham, Woodhouse. 

ONTARIO: Brock, Pickering, Reach, Scott, Thorah, Uxbridge, Whitby East. 

OXFORD: Blenheim, Dereham, Norwich North, Norwich South, Zorra East. 

PEEL: Albion, Caledon, Chinguacousy, Toronto. 

PERTH: Blanshard, Downie, Easthope North, Easthope South, EUice, Elma, Fullar- 
ton, Mornington, Wallace. 

SIMCOE: Adjala, Essa, Gwillimbury West, Innisfail, Nottawasaga, Orillia, Sunni- 
dale, Tay, Tecumseh, Tiny, Vespra. 

STORMONT: Cornwall. 

VICTORIA: Bexley, Eldon, Mariposa. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

PUBLIBHED BY THE ONTARIO DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TORONTO. 

No. Date. Title. Author. 

169 Feb. 1909 Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- f S.F.Edwards. 

gen Accumulation in the Deguminosaj . . \ 

170 Mar. 1909 Mitchell- Walker Test Bottle | ^^^^- ^^Iker!^' 

( Insects Affecting Vegetables 

171 April 1909 | ^^^^^^ j).g,^33g Affecting Vegetables . . . . { j; W- ^^if^f^' 

172 May 1909 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) ... Dairy School. 

173 Oct. 1909 Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

174 Dec. 1909 Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay W. H. Day. 

175 Dec. 1909 Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

176 Dec. 1909 Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees D. H. Jones. 

177 Dec. 1909 Lime-Sulphur Wash { g; q^^^^^^^' 

178 Dec. 1909 Character and Treatment of Swamp or W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils A. E. Slater. 

179 Feb. 1910 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters Fruit Ex. Stations. 

180 April 1910 Flour and Breadmaking { ^- J^ p°"^y 

181 June 1910 The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

182 July 1910 Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch 

183 Aug. 1910 Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch 

184 Nov. 1910 Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

185 Nov. 1910 Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

186 Dec. 1910 Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

187 Jan. 1911 The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

188 April 1911 Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Hewitt. 

189 May 1911 Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Grahom. 

190 May 1911 Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch 

191 June 1911 Bee-keepiug in Ontario Fruit Branch 

192 July 1911 Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

193 Nov. 1911 Tuberculosis of FjwIs S. F. Edwards. 

194 Dec. 1911 Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch 

195 Jan. 1912 Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised | J' J^^p^i^g^^ 

196 Jan. 1912 Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

197 Feb. 1912 Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

198 Feb. 1912 Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

199 Feb. 1912 Onions A. McMeans. 

200 April 1912 Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

201 May 1912 Peach Growing in Ontario F. M. Clement. 

Peach Diseases L. Caesar. 

202 May 1912 Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

203 May 1912 Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

204 June 1912 Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

205 Sept. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) .. { 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making ) Staff of Dairy SchooL 

206 Nov. 1912 Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . j Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm ( 

207 Dec. 1912 Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

208 Jan. 1913 Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions f J. H. Hare. 

in Ontario County \ T. A. Benson. 

209 March 1913 Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavitz. 

210 March 1913 Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. F. M. Clament. 

211 March 1913 Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters... Fruit Branch. 

(No. 179 revised.) 

212 March 1913 An Orchard Survey in Dundas, Stormont and 

Glengarry F. S. Reeves. 

213 April 1913 Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


LIVE STOCK BRANCH 


BULLETIN 214 


Sheep Raising in Ontario 

Does It Pay? 


By LIVE STOCK BRANCH 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, MAY, 1913 


BULLETIN NO. 214] [MAY, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

LIVE STOCK BRANCH 


Sheep Raising in Ontario 

DOES IT PAY? 

" Sheep Kaising iu Ontario— Does it Pay ?" was the question which the Ontario 
Sheep Breeders' Association wished to have answered in a manner which would be 
satisfactory to all concerned. While every other class of live stock was increasing 
and receiving increased attention from ithe farmers of the Province, sheep were 
receiving less attention each succeeding year, and were decreasing in numbers, 
having decreased from 1,797,313 in 1900 to 1,040,245 in 1911. 

To be able to give a satisfactory answer to this question and to promote a 
greater interest in sheep raising throughout the Province, it was felt that it would 
be an advantage to have a number of Illustration Stations located at different 
points throughout the Province, with the object of demonstrating the profits which 
could reasonably be expected under ordinary conditions from a small flock of 
grade ewes. The co-operation of the Live Stock Branch of the Ontario Depart- 
ment of Agriculture was obtained in this work and a grant received to defray the 
cost of supervising the work. 

The following is the general outline of the work which was recommended: 

1. That there should be eight demonstration stations as follows: (a) Six 
stations located at different points throughout the Province where lambs should be 
dropped not earlier than April 20th, and marketed during the following winter; 
(6) one station located in Muskoka devoted to raising of summer lambs, and (c) 
one station located near Toronto devoted to raising early lambs. 

2. That the flock at each station should consist of from ten to twelve good 
grade ewes to be owned and supplied by the person in charge of the station, and 
a pure-bred ram to be supplied by the Department. 

3. That each station should be in charge of a good average farmer with ex- 
perience in the handling of grade sheep, and who was able to supply suitable 
accommodation for the flock, and who would agree to keep accurate account of all 
expenses of feeding and care, and make detailed report of same as required. 

4. That the person in charge of the work should be encouraged to keep some 
of his best ewe lambs for the improvement of the flock. 

5. That the rams should represent Shropshire, Southdown, Dorset Horn, Hamp- 
shire, Oxford, Leicester, Lincoln, and Cotswold. 

6. That the general supervision of the work should be placed in the hands of 
two inspectors who should be expert sheep men. 


7. The farmers iu charge o±" stations should be required to refer all questions 
of feeding, breeding, care, and marketing to the inspectors. 

Nine stations were finally located in the following Counties: Brant, Middle- 
sex, York, Huron, Simcoe, Muskoka, Victoria, Lanark and Leeds, and the flocks 
and rams selected. In locating the stations the aim was, as far as possible, to have 
represented the different conditions throughout the Province. 

Mr. John Campbell, of Woodville, and Lt.-Col. Eobert McEwen, of Byron, 
were appointed as Inspectors to supervise the work. Before the experiments were 
commenced, they inspected and valued the flocks. 

The following tables and summary show the results obtained. In this finan- 
cial statement the expenses for the year are the cost of feeding the flock of ewes 
and ram from the beginning of the breeding season in the fall of one year to the 
beginning of the breeding season in the fall of the succeeding year, plus the cost 
of feeding the lambs from weaning time until they were marketed. Each flock 
was charged with six per cent, on the investment represented by the Inspectors' 
valuation, and where any losses occurred the full cost was charged against the 
flock. In no case was credit given for the bonus of $3 per head, this was given 
simply as an inducement to the farmer to keep accurate accounts. The results 
shown here are what any farmer might reasonably expect. 


REPORT OF SHEEP-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. 

During the first year the lambs raised at all Stations, except Brown's Corners 
and Windermere, were sold when about one year old. The lambs from the Station 
at Brown's Corners were intended to be marketed as early spring lambs, while 
those from Windermere were to be sold during the summer to hotels in the neigh- 
borhood doing a tourist trade. At Brown's Corners some of the lambs were not 
dropped early enough to be sold at the highest price, and some were carried over 
until the following spring, the Station being credited with the price of the lambs 
when sold and charged with the expense of feeding during the winter. 

During the second year the lambs at six of the Stations were sold when about 
one year old. The lambs from the Station at Brown's Corners were marketed as 
early spring lambs. Those at Windermere were sold for the summer hotel trade. 
The lambs at Paris were sold at various dates in the fall, for, as good prices were 
offered for them at that date, it was not considered that it would be profitable to 
feed them over winter. 

Perth. 

This Station was in charge of Isaac M. Kenyon, who had ten grade ewes and a 
Southdown ram. 

First Year. The sheep were brought to the barn on December 20th. During 
the winter they were fed 500 pounds of hay valued at $3.25 ; 4,000 pounds of un- 
threshed peas, $12; 2,000 pounds turnips, $5; 150 pounds mixed bran and grain. 
$1.50. Total value of the winter feed for ewes and ram $23.75 or an average cost 
per head of $2.16. Fifteen lambs were dropped. All lambs were docked and the 
wethers castrated on May 10th. The eleven fleeces weighed 69 pounds after being 
washed, and sold at 24 cents per pound, value $16.56. 

On May 1st the sheep and lambs were turned out to pasture on cheap rough 
land and the pasture for the season was valued at $2. In the fall the lambs had 


the run of a field of rape and also in some well cobbed corn. The winter feeding 
of the lambs began on December 20th, and consisted of a daily ration of 60 pounds 
clover, green peas and oats, 30 pounds turnips, and 13 pounds bran and oats, the 
feed costing 40 cents per day or a total up to March 6th of $30.40, an average of 
$3.03. On this date 12 of the lambs were sold at $6.35 per hundred and 3 were 
kept for breeding purposes at the same valuation. The weight of the 15 lambs was 
1,500 pounds, realizing $93.75. Total receipts of lambs and wool, $110.31; ex- 
penses $59.55; profit, $50.75. 

Second Year. The sheep were brought to the barn on December 15th. Dur- 
ing the winter they were fed 700 pounds of hay, valued at $3.80; 4,000 pounds 
green peas and 600 pounds green oats, valued at $15; 2,000 pounds roots, valued 
at $5; 175 pounds grain, valued at $1.75; total value of winter feed for ewes and 
ram, $34.55, an average cost per head of $3.33. 16 lambs were dropped and 15 
lived. Dogs worried the flock in September, causing a loss of two ewes and two 
lambs for which nothing was recovered. The eleven fleeces, after washing, weighed 
71 pounds and sold at 33 cents per pound, value $16.33. On April 26th, the sheep 
and lambs were turned out to pasture on cheap rough land, pasture for the season 
being valued at $2. On May 10th, the lambs were docked and the males castrated. 
The winter feeding of the lambs commenced on January 1st. They were fed 
3,700 pounds of hay, valued at $14.80; 1,000 pounds green oats, valued at $5; 
1,800 pounds of roots, valued at $3; 130 pounds of bran, valued at $1.20. $2 was 
charged for pasturing lambs from time of weaning until winter feeding com- 
menced, a total of $36, or $3 per head. On March 11th, the 13 lambs were sold 
at $7.50 per hundred; the weight of lambs was 1,170 pounds, realizing $87.70. 
Total receipts, wool and lambs, $104.03; total expenses, including $13.00 for two 
ewes worried by dogs, $70.95; profit, $33.08. Profit for two years, $83.83. 

Fairfield Bast. 

Edwin Johns had charge of this Station. The flock consisted of 10 grade 
Leicester ewes, valued at $6.50 per head and a Cotswold ram. 

First Year. The feed for the ewes and ram during the winter consisted of 
3,050 pounds of hay, $18.35; 1,500 pounds pea straw, $3.50; 3,775 pounds roots, 
$4.63; 10 bushels oats, $4.05; 150 pounds bran, $1.65. The pasture for the sum- 
mer was valued at $13. This makes a total cost of feed during the year, $43.43, or 
$3.95 per head. Two of the ewes in this flock were lost. One died shortly before 
lambing, and the other about two weeks after. The cause was not discovered in 
either case. The ram also died in the spring. He had been ailing all winter with 
what appeared to be paralysis of the throat. The sheep were not dipped. The 
clip amounted to 85 pounds, and sold at 13>4 cents, $11.47. 

The flock produced 15 lambs. Two of these were injured during the sum- 
mer by a train and had to be slaughtered. The railway company allowed a claim 
of $12 for the two. Thirteen lambs went into winter quarters and were fed 3,440 
pounds mixed clover, green peas and oats, worth $14.56; 963 pounds of straw, 96 
cents; 1,365 pounds mangles, $1.60; 1,950 pounds mixed bran, oats and peas, 
$19.50, total, $36.63, or an average cost of $3.83. The lambs were sold on April 
25th at 7 cents per pound. The total weight was 1,707 pounds at $7, or a total of 
$119.49. Including the $13 for the two lambs, the total receipts were $131.49, or 
an average of $8.77. Total receipts, lambs and wool, $143.96; expenses, $123.39; 
profit, $19.57. 


Second Year. The flock was taken off pasture on November 35th. During the 
winter they were fed 3,430 pounds of hay, valued at $13.74; 4,445 pounds straw, 
valued at $6.84; 234 pounds of roots, valued at 28c.; 576 pounds grain valued at 
$6.12. Total winter feed, $36.98, an average of $3.36. Thirteen lambs were 
dropped and 11 lived. The eleven fleeces weighed 97 pounds, and sold for 14c. 
per pound, bringing $13.58. On May 1st the sheep and lambs were turned out to 
pasture, which was valued at $10 for the summer. On May 20th, the lambs were 
docked and the rams castrated. The lambs were weaned in August, and were put 
to winter feed on December 1st. They were fed 3,500 pounds of clover hay, worth 
$14; 1,060 pounds of turnips, valued at $1.77, and 1,985 pounds bran, peas and 
oats, valued at $1 per hundred, a total cost of $35.62, an average of $3.23 per 
head for winter feeding. On April 20th, nine of the lambs were sold, the other two 
being kept for breeding, and valued the same as those sold. The total weight of 
the 11 lambs was 1,282 pounds, at $6.50 per hundred, $83.33. Total receipts for 
lambs and wool, $96.91; total expenses, which include feed of ewes and ram, feed 
of lambs, pasture and interest on investment at 6 per cent., $80.63 ; profit, $16.28. 
Profit for two years, $35.85. 

WOODVILLE. 

D. C. Ross was in charge of this Station. He started with 12 grade Leicester 
ewes, valued at $8 each, and a Leicester ram. 

First Year. The feed for the winter consisted of 3,000 pounds hay, $15; 
3,000 pounds straw, $5; 125 bushels turnips, $7.50; 420 pounds oats, $4.20; 
some unthreshed peas, valued at $2; $10 was charged for the pasture. Total, 
$43.70; average per head, $3.36. 130 pounds of unwashed wool was sold at 13>^ 
cents per pound for $17.55. The sheep were not dipped. During the year one of 
the ewes died and was replaced. 

Eighteen lambs were dropped. After weaning, their feed cost $39.11, or $2.30 
per head. It consisted of 3,375 pounds hay, $11.81; 270 bushels turnips, $16.20; 
21 bushels oats, $6.30; 1,860 pounds unthreshed peas. $4.80. One of the lambs 
was sold in November and 13 on March 27th. Four of the ewe lambs were kept 
in the flock. These were weighed at the time the others were sold, and charged 
for at the same price. The selling price was $6.65, and the weight 2,339 pounds, 
making $156.54. The November lambs sold for $6.32, total, $162.86, or $9.05 per 
head. Total receipts, lambs and wool, $180.41 ; expenses, $98.07 ; profit, $82.34. 

Second Year. The feed for the winter consisted of 6,370 pounds hay, worth 
$22.29, and 10,920 pounds roots, valued at $10.92, total $33.21, an average of 
$2.55 for winter feeding. Fifteen lambs were dropped and 14 lived. On May 10th, 
all lambs were docked, and the rams castrated on June 1st. The 13 fleeces weighed 
135 pounds and sold for 13jf^c. per pound, bringing $18.22. Summer pasture for 
the flock was valued at $9, The lamhs were weaned in August and put into winter 
feeding November 17th. During the feeding period they were fed 1,500 pounds 
of hay, worth $9; 230 bushels turnips charged at 6 cents per bushel, $13.80; a 
quantity of straw worth $4.50; 994 pounds of grain, valued at $12.42, a total of 
$39.72, averaging $2.84. On March 17th, 12 of them were sold and the two which 
were kept for breeding valued the same as those sold. The weight of the 14 was 
1,720 pounds, at $7 per hundred, brought $120.40. Total receipts, lambs and 
wool, $138.62. expenses, including dip and interest on investment, $90.02; profit, 
$48.60. Profit for two years, $130.94. 


DUNTEOON. 

John McKee had at this Station 10 grade Leicester ewes, valued at $8 per head, 
and a Shropshire ram. 

First Year. Winter feeding consisted of .,100 pounds of Alfalfa hay and 
1,430 pounds of clover hay, value, $14.08. A quantity of straw fed was valued 
at $5. They also got 7 bushels of oats, $2.53; 70 pounds bran, 77 cents. The 
pasture for the summer was worth $13.75, and zeuoleum dip 75 cents, making the 
cost of the year's feed $36.87, an average of $3.35. The castrating and docking 
was done on May 25th. The clip of unwashed wool was 109 pounds, which sold 
at 13 cents per pound, realizing $14.17. Zenoleum solution was used for dipping. 
One of the ewes died during the fall. 

There were 11 lambs in the jBock. The winter feeding of these started on 
October 28th and continued until March 17th, when they were sold. The winter 
feeding cost $29.10, or $2.65 per head. The feed consisted of 4,200 pounds of 
Alfalfa at $8 per ton, $16.80; and 1,230 pounds of oats and barley at $1 per 
hundred, $12.30. The 11 lambs weighed 1,365 pounds, and sold at $7, or $95.55, 
an average of $8.69. Total receipts, lambs and wool, $109.72; expenses, $80.27; 
profit, $29.45. 

Seco7id Year. The flock was fed in the barn 2,300 pounds of hay, valued at 
$12.80, and were allowed pea straw at will, which is put in at a nominal charge 
of $5; roots valued at $1.56, and 264 pounds grain, worth $2.82, a total of $22.18, 
an average of $2.01 for winter feeding. Ten lambs were dropped, of which 9 lived. 
The flock went to pasture April 20th, for which $12 is charged. The shearing was 
done May 23rd. The eleven fleeces weighed 90 pounds and brought 14 cents per 
pound, $12.60. After weaning, the lambs were allowed the roughage of the farm. 
During the feeding period, they were fed 2,400 pounds hay, worth $9.60, and 540 
pounds grain, valued at $6.75. On March 5th they were sold for 8 cents per pound. 
The weight of the nine was 915 pounds, bringing $73.20. Total receipts, $85.80; 
expenses, $57.58; profit, $28.22. Profit for two years, $57.67. 

Paris. 

This Station was in charge of W. A. Crichton, who started with 10 grade 
Shropshire ewes, worth $8 each, and a Hampshire ram. 

First Year. The flock was fed during the winter 5,120 pounds of hay, $23.04; 
82 bushels roots, $8.20; 9 bushels oats, $3.60. The pasture for this flock was 
valued at $17.50, making a total cost for the year of $52.34, or $4.76 per head. 
The sheep were not dipped. Seventy-seven pounds of wool was sold at 14 cents 
amounting to $10.78. The ewes were in particularly good health in the spring, 
and considerable credit for this was thought to be due to the exercise they got. 
This was attained by having a feed rack at each end of the yard, and with feed in 
both, the sheep were continually running back and forth. 

The lambs numbered 16. One was sold in November and the balance kept 
until May 1st. The winter feeding of the lambs consisted of 2,250 pounds of hay, 
$9; 13,500 pounds roots, $18; 3,000 pounds oats, $30; and 2,250 pounds ensilage, 
$3 ; total, $60, or $4 per head. The lamb sold in the fall went away before feed- 
ing commenced, and brought $8. The remaining 15 when sold weighed 2,150 
pounds, and sold at 7 cents per pound, bringing in $150.50. Total receipts for 
lambs, $158.50, an average per head of $9.91. It should be noted that at this 
Station the charges for pasture and also for some of the feed are high. Total 
receipts, $169.28; expenses, $118.64; profit, $50.64. 


6 

Second Year. During the Winter the flock was fed 4,915 pounds of hay, 
valued at $18.40; 4,680 pounds roots, $5.46; and $3.60 was allowed for 360 pounds 
grain, making a total of $27.46, an average of $2.49 for winter feeding. The 
pasture for the flock was valued at $15.75. In all 18 lambs were dropped, one 
ewe raising two pair of twins during the year. In January she dropped a pair, 
which were sold for Easter, bringing $11. In October she dropped another pair, 
which were sold in February for $15. The other lambs were not fed over winter, 
but sold at various times in the fall, $97 being received in all. The flock yielded 
73 pounds of wool, which sold for 15 cents per pound, $10.95. Total receipts, 
$107.95; total expenses, which include $8 for a ewe which died, and $2, which is 
the difference between the value and insurance received on one killed by lightning, 
were $60.11; profit, $47.84. Profits for two years, $110.75. 

Eedgrave. 

This flock was in charge of John Pritchard, and the first year consisted of 9 
grade Leicester ewes and an Oxford ram. An extra ewe was put in for the second 
year. 

First Year. During the winter the ewes and ram were fed 5,000 pounds hay, 
$24.75; 73>4 bushels turnips, $4.41; 149 pounds oats, $1.50; 147 pounds bran, 
$1.65. The summer pasture was valued at $10, and dip and salt, 72 cents, making 
the total cost for the year's feed $43.03; average per head, $4.30. The sheep 
produced 65 pounds of wool. This was washed and sold at 21 cents per pound, 
or $13.65. One of the ewes died on July 17th from an unknown cause. She was 
replaced by a ewe valued at $5.25. $4.80 was received from neighbors for the use 
of the ram. 

Twelve lambs were raised. After weaning they were allowed the run of 1^ 
acres of orchard sown with rape. As this land had been cultivated and would 
not have been used for any other crop, the value of $5 was placed on what the 
lambs used. The lambs were given 2,400 pounds of hay, $7.20 ; pea straw, valued 
at $4; 120 bushels of turnips, $7.20; 1,440 pounds mixed grain, $14.40, total, 
$37.80; average per head, $3.15. The lambs were shipped to the Toronto market 
on March 15th. They weighed at Toronto 1,225 pounds, and the net price was 
$6.80, totalling $83.36; per head, $6.95. Eeceipts, $101.81; expenses, $92.34: 
profit, $9.47. 

Second Year. The feed for the winter consisted of 4,950 pounds hay, $14.85 ; 
4,500 pounds roots, worth $4.50; 330 pounds of grain at a cent a pound. Pasture 
for the summer was $15. Total for the year, including 75 cents for dip, $38.40, 
an average of $3.49 for the year's feeding. Sixty-two pounds of wool sold for 
$12.60. One ewe died, evidently from an affection of the lungs. Ten lambs were 
raised, all of which were fed through the winter, their feed consisting of 1,500 
pounds of hay, valued at $6 ; 4,400 pounds of roots, valued at $4.44 ; 1,099 pounds 
of grain, worth $12.58. Total, $32.97. They were sold March 5th, at $7.50 per 
hundred and weighed 1,370 pounds, bringing $102.75. Total receipts, lambs and 
wool, $114.75. Expenses, including loss of $6.50 for ewe which died, $83.65 : 
profit, $31.09. Profit for two years, $40.56. 

Hyde Park. 

A. M. Dickie had under his charge 12 grade Lincoln ewes, which were valued 
at $8 per head and a Lincoln ram. 


First Year. The winter feeding for the flock amounted to 6,032 pounds of 
hay, $30.16; 1,625 pounds straw, $4.00; 110 bushels roots, $13.20; 370 pounds 
grain, $4.62; salt, 50 cents. The flock pastured on the roadside during the sum- 
mer. Zenoleum was used for the dip, and cost $1.50. The total cost of feeding 
the ewes and ram was $53.98, an average of $4.16. A considerable quantity of the 
hay charged to ewes was removed in cleaning racks each day and fed to cattle. 
As no record was made of the amount taken no allowance could be made. The 
wool clip weighed 132 pounds and sold at 13 cents per pound, $17.16. 

One of the ewes was not with lamb. The balance produced 15 lambs. The 
winter feeding of these included 4,865 pounds of hay, $19.46; 116 bushels mangles, 
$11.60, and 2,502 pounds bran, $27.52, total, $58.58; per head, $3.91. They were 
all sold on April 6th at $6.50 per hundred, 1,980 pounds, $128.70 ; per head, $8.58. , 
Total receipts, $145.86; expenses, $119.82; profit, $26.04. 

Second Year. The winter feed for this flock consisted of 4,360 pounds hay, 
worth $19.62; 6,000 pounds straw, valued at $6; 4,200 pounds roots, worth $7; 
430 pounds grain at a cent a pound. Pasture for the summer was $3. Total for 
the year, including 50 cents for dip, $40.42, averaging $3.11. The clip amounted 
to 138 pounds and sold for 13 cents per pound, $17.94. Fourteen lambs were 
raised, they were charged $5 for pasture from time of weaning to start of winter 
feeding. They were fed 3,520 pounds of hay, worth $21.12; 5,700 pounds of roots, 
valued at $9.50; 1,690 pounds grain, worth $21.12; total $56.74. They were sold 
March 18th for $7.25 per hundred, bringing $114.27. Total receipts, $162.21; 
expenses, $104.42; profit, $57.79. Profits for two years, $83.83. 

WilNDERMERE. 

Wm. Aitkins was in charge of this Station, where he had 12 grade Shrop- 
shire and Oxford ewes and a Dorset ram. The ewes were valued at $6.50 per head. 
At this Station it was decided to have the lambs marketed during the first sum- 
mer. 

First Year. The winter feeding of the flock consisted of 3,480 pounds hay, 
$26.10; 50^ bushels turnips, $3.03; 10 bushels oats, $4.20; 304 pounds bran, 
$3.80, and a quantity of ensilage, valued at $1. The flock was allowed to run on 
the road side so that no charge was made for pasture. Zenoleum dip was used. 
It cost 75 cents. The total cost for feed was $38.88, an average per head of $2.99. 
The wool from the flock weighed lOOJ^ pounds and sold at 13 cents, bringing in 
$13.06. 

Fifteen lambs were raised and as they were sold before being weaned no charge 
was made for feed. Twelve lambs were sold for $5 each, and the remaining 3 were 
kept in the flock at a~ valuation of $6 each. The total return from the lambs was. 
therefore, $78, an average of $5.20. Total receipts, $91.06; expenses, $45.06: 
profit, $46. 

Second Year. He fed during the winter 6,550 pounds hay worth $24.00, 
straw valued at 50 cents and ensilage the same value, with a quantity of grain, 
$7.50. The flock pastured on the road and nothing is charged for it. Feed for 
the year, including 75 cents for dip amounted to $33.25, average, $2.56. Twelve 
lambs were raised and sold for $5 each during the summer before weaning, so that 
nothing is charged for feeding them, over and above feed of the ewes. Receipts, 98 
pounds of wool at 12>4 cents per pound, $12.25; lambs. $60. Total. $72.25; total 
expenses, $39.43 : profit, $32.82. Profits for two years. $78.82. 


Brown's Corners. 

This Station was iu charge of Wm. Little. The flock consisted of 13 ewes, 
one being a Cotswold grade, 3 Shropshire grades, 3 Oxford grades, one Lincoln 
Griade, and 4 Dorset grades, and a Southdown ram. The ewes were considered to 
be worth $8.00 each. 

First Year. They were fed during the winter, 3,100 pounds hay, $15.50; 
1,000 pounds straw, $1; 90 bushels turnips, $5.40; 22 bushels oats, $8.80; 700 
pounds bran, $8.20, dover chaff and oil cake, 75 cents; total, $39.65; average, $3.05 
The wool weighed 80 pounds and sold at 15 cents for $12. It was intended tha.f 
the lambs from this Station should be placed on the Easter market. As Easter 
came unusually early in the spring, and plans had not been made long enough 
ahead the previous fall, it was found impossible to get any of the lambs ready 
before Easter. The first lamb was dropped on February 11th. During the spring, 
6 lambs were sold for $46. Two were taken into the flock for breeding purposes 
at that time at an average of $7.50 each. The remaining 5 lambs were held over 
and marketed in the spring of 1911. These were dressed by Mr. Little and sold 
for $48.07. This makes the total receipts from the lambs, $109.07; average per 
head, $8.39. The 5 lambs that were kept until 1911 were placed on the road 
during the summer of 1910, were fed one-half ton threshed alsike, $3.00; 323 
pounds oats, $3.42; 65 pounds pease, 87 cents; 60 bushels roots, $4.80; total, 
$12.09; average per head, $2.42. Total receipts, $121.07; expenses, $59.00; profit, 
$62.07. 

Second Year. The flock was fed 2,700 pounds hay, $16.20; 2,250 pounds 
dover chaff valued at $6.75; 6,720 pounds roots worth, $8.96; 2,154 pounds grain, 
valued at $24.26. They pastured on the road and were only charged 50 cents for 
summer with 50 cents added for dip. The cost for the year was $57.17, an average 
of $4.76. The lambs were sold for the spring trade and received no feed which 
is not charged in the feed of the ewes. 22 of them were raised, which indicates 
that this flock is very prolific. They were sold at various times and at various 
prices, realizing in all $168. 103 pounds of wool brought $14.99. The total 
receipts were $182.99; expenses, $64.43; profit, $118.56. Profit for two years, 
$180.63. 


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14 

When we consider the results of these experiments we are bound to agree 
with the Sheep Breeders who claim that "Sheep liaising in Ontario Pays." 

The flocks in this set of experiments were handled under ordinary farm con- 
ditions and under every condition likely to be met with throughout the Province, 
and every one of them showed a reasonable and some of them a remarkably grati- 
fying surplus in each of the two years during which the experiment was carried 
on. It would appear from the report of the Station at Brown's Corners that 
where a farmer is so situated that he can cater to the early spring or Easter trade, 
that it is an unusually profitable line to follow, this flock in the second year 
giving almost as much profit as the value of the flock. The flock at Windermere, 
where the lambs were sold for the summer hotel trade, was also very profitable, 
giving an average profit of $39.41 per year. While these two flocks may have 
had especially favorable conditions, the other seven flocks which were kept under 
conditions no more favorable than any farmer in the Province enjoys, gave a total 
profit for two years of $543.43, an average of $38.81 per year per flock, 

"Sheep Eaising in Ontario Pays." Try it with a flock of ten or twelve grade 
ewes and a pure bred ram and increase the profits from your farm. 


HANDLING AND MAPtKETING WOOL. 

Some years ago one of the reasons given for sheep raising not being more pro- 
fitable than it was, was the comparatively poor price paid for wool, and no doubt 
there was a great deal of truth in it. If a better price had been obtained for wool, 
it would have increased the profits from sheep raising and thus induced the farmers 
of the Province to keep more sheep. This is not true to the same extent to-day, 
and buyers claim that if the clip of wool was properly handled they would be able 
to pay still higher prices. 

With the object of determining what improvements in the marketing of wool 
would be most likely to have the desired result, inquiries were made of a large num- 
ber of firms throughout the Province manufacturing woolen goods asking them 
what classes of goods they manufactured, the kinds of wool used, where they pur- 
chased it, the amount of Canadian wool used, and what criticisms they had to offer 
with reference to it, and what suggestions, if any, they would make with reference 
to the marketing of it. From the replies received from these various manufacturers 
the following conclusions are drawn : 

London rules the wool markets of the world, and when our manufacturers 
cannot obtain what they want nearer home, they buy their supplies there. If we do 
not supply their demands and they go to London, we will suffer to a certain extent 
because our wool is constantly in competition with wools produced in Australia and 
other parts of the world, where proper care is taken to place it upon the market 
in the very best condition. We have no wool market nor any system of selling. We 
do not offer large enough amounts for sale at a time to make it worth while for a 
buyer to go any distance. This can be remedied if more sheep were to be raised. 

That almost every known breed of sheep is kept in Ontario, with the exception 
of the Merino, and no two breeds of sheep produce exactly the same kinds of wool, 
although the Lincolns and Cotswolds produce very similar wools. 

Eoughly speaking, there are three great classes of wools: 

(1) Clothing wool — short. 

(3) Delaine — fine, strong, short wools (Worsteds). 

(3) Combing — long wools. 


16 

That for the fine classes of goods the wools have to be imported, but for the 
coarser clothings, blankets, etc., for which there is a large and growing market, 
our Canadian wools cannot be outclassed. The rapid growth of some of our estab- 
lishments manufacturing such goods and using Canadian wool only is sufficient 
proof of this. The "Cornwall" blanket, which had a world-wide reputation for 
its quality was made entirely of Canadian wool and would still be famous but for 
the use of cheaper materials. 

The question of breeds of sheep and kinds of wool is not so important as the 
proper care of the wool while it is on the sheep and at shearing time; uses can be 
found for the wool from every breed of sheep, provided it is properly cared for. In 
many cases the weeds are not combatted and the sheep are allowed to wander all 
over the farm, gathering up burrs and bootjacks as trophies. After these, too, often 
comes a straw or hay stack, which adds its quota of foreign material to the wool. 

While many provide proper places and. take care of their sheep, a great many 
more do not. In many cases the sheep are underfed during the winter, which causes 
them to lose flesh. When this occurs, a weak spot in the wool fibre can be found 
which detracts greatly from its value as the wool will become clotted and will not 
divide, making it impossible to properly comb or card it. To provide wool of good 
quality, the sheep must be kept in clean quarters and fed well enough to be in a 
healthy condition. 

Breeds should not be crossed, as it produces a nondescript wool which is not 
well suited for any particular purpose and consequently is not very marketable. 
Excessive inbreeding or anything which weakens the constitution of the flock will 
have a bad effect on the quality of the wool. 

Though the producer may not always take proper care of the wool while it is 
on the sheep, there should be no excuse for not delivering it in better shape. A 
great many fleeces are rolled up without being trimmed in any way, including all 
the burrs and dirt which they originally contained. Too often the fleece is tied up 
with binder twine and it is next to impossible to prevent strands of the hemp from 
being mixed with the wool. This vegetable material will not take the dye whicli 
is used for the wool, and it therefore detracts greatly from the value of any piece 
of cloth into which it happens to find its way. The manufacturer prefers to obtain 
unwashed wool, as he has to furnish machinery for washing and scouring anyway 
and they do it more thoroughly than the farmer can do it with the means at his 
disposal. It is also better for the sheep as there is no delay in shearing due to 
waiting for warmer water. 

The producer, however, is not altogether to blame; the practice of selling to 
jinall dealers is a great drawback. They pay an average price, and if a man has 
only a small quantity, no matter what the quality, he cannot command any higher 
price. Too often the dealers cannot distinguish between the various wools, and 
oases are on record where they have l)ought unwashed wool for washed wool. 

There is now some encouragement for the farmer to take better care of the 
wool, but he must in most cases change his system of marketing to obtain the full 
benefit which might be obtained by taking better care of his product. There is no 
money in it under the system of marketing generally practiced unless he produces 
sufficient to attract a manufacturer. There is no business in Ontario where the in- 
experienced middleman is doing more harm than in the wool business. The farmer.* 
should deal directly with the consumer or large wool merchant. This is being done 
in some districts. Around Lindsay, where the producers have been selling directly 
to the manufacturers according to quality, the standard of wools has risen consider- 
ably. The small dealer.*; sell by bulk and no large dealer can afford to gire them 


16 

the best price because there can be no guarantee given as to the quality, cleanli- 
ness, etc., of the wool. This class of dealer should be eliminated. It is not a busi- 
ness, but a sideline with most of them. 

It is estimated that there is an average loss of 17 per cent, in all Ontario wool 
due to dirt, poor wool, etc. Were it possible to have every sheep owner visit some 
mill and have the various processes pointed out to him and shown how, with the 
most up to date processes and machinery, it is impossible to prevent some dirt occa- 
sionally finding its way into the manufactured article, he would no doubt take 
greater care to prevent dirt getting into the wool. 

The farmers can individually do a great deal to improve the quality of the 
wool placed on the market by taking care to prevent dirt getting into the wool 
while on the sheep and by being more careful at shearing time in trimming the 
fleeces. Instead of using twine to tie them, a small strand of wool from the fleece 
itself should be twisted and used for this purpose. It is not necessary to have the 
fleeces tied up tightly so long as they are tied neatly enough to keep each fleece by 
itself, it is all that is required. 

In marketing, some scheme of co-operation as practised by the fruit men 
should greatly help to solve the question. In Tennessee, great benefit has been de- 
rived from Wool Clubs. The clubs were formed for the purpose of helping each 
other in the matter of selling only. Each jnember of the club furnishes an estimate 
of the amount of wool which he will have for sale to the Secretary of the club. 
Arrangements are made to have the wool delivered at a sorting shed and an expert 
sorter secured for a time to sort the wool. The wool from each farmer is sorted and 
he is credited with so many pounds of each grade. Wlien the clip is all in, the 
club is able to say to buyers we have so many pounds of wool of each grade, what 
will you pay? The manufacturer or large wool merchant knows the quality of 
wool, and, as he is buying in fairly large quantities, he is enabled to offer the 
highest possible price. This scheme eliminates the middleman and gives the farmer 
all there is in his wool. Then there is encouragement offered to produce the best 
grade of wool. 

If clubs of this sort were formed in districts throughout the Province, it would 
help to increase the profits from sheep-raising and also create more interest in the 
industry. This would be a step towards establishing a market, each club centre 
would be a market on a small scale, and afterward, if it appeared to be advisable, 
co-operation among a number of clubs would make larger markets and attract more 
buyers. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

Published bt the Ontabio Depabtment of Aqbicultuee, Toeonto. 


Serial 
No, Date, 

168 Oct, 1908 

169 Feb. 1909 

170 Mar. 1909 

171 April 1909 


172 


May 


1909 


173 


Oct. 


1909 


174 


Dec. 


1909 


175 


Dec, 


1909 


176 


Dec. 


1909 


177 


Dec, 


1909 


178 


Dec. 


1909 


179 


Feb. 


1910 


180 


April 


1910 


181 


June 


1910 


182 


July 


1910 


183 


Aug. 


1910 


184 


Nov, 


1910 


185 


Nov, 


1910 


186 


Dec. 


1910 


187 


Jan, 


1911 


188 


April 


1911 


189 


May 


1911 


190 


May 


1911 


191 


June 


1911 


192 


July 


1911 


193 


Nov. 


1911 


194 


Dec. 


1911 


195 


Jan. 


1912 


196 


Jan. 


1912 


197 


Feb. 


1912 


198 


Feb. 


1912 


199 


Feb. 


1912 


200 


April 


1912 


201 


May 


1912 


202 


May 


1912 


203 


May 


1912 


204 


June 


1912 


205 


Sept. 


1912 


206 


Nov. 


1912 


207 


Dec. 


1912 


208 


Jan. 


1913 


'.{ 


209 March 1913 

210 March 1913 

211 March 1913 

212 April 1913 

213 April 1913 

214 May 1913 


Title, 

The Perennial Sow Thistle and some other 
Weed Pests 

Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- 
gen Accumulation in the Leguminosse 

Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | 

■ Insects Affecting Vegetables 

Fungus Diseases Affecting Vegetables | 

Dairy School Bulletin (No, 143 Revised) ... 

Birds of Ontario 

Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay? 

Farm Drainage Operations 

Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 
Trees 

Lime-Sulphur Wash \ 

Character and Treatment of Swamp or / 
Muck Soils l 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 
(No. 147 revised) 

Flour and Breadmaking | 

The Teeth and Their Care 

Bee-keeping in Ontario 

Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making 

Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

Little Peach Disease 

Children: Care and Training 

The Codling Moth 

Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) 

Farm Poultry (151 revised) 

Bee Diseases in Ontario 

Bee-keeping in Ontario 

Agricultural Co-operation 

Tuberculosis of Fowls 

Apple Orcharding 

Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised -^ 

Tomatoes 

Bee Diseases in Ontario 

Lime-Sulphur Wash 

Onions 

Fruit Juices 

Peach Diseases 

Peach Growing in Ontario 

Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula 

Cabbage and Cauliflower 

Decay of the Teeth 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) .. 
Parti. Cheese-making and Butter-making 
Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm ;^ 

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions ( 

in Ontario County \ 

Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) 

Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. 
Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters... 

(No. 179 revised.) 
Orchard Surveys in Dundas, Stormont and 

Glengarry 

Bee Diseases in Ontario 

Sheep Raising in Ontario: Does it Pay? 


Author. 

J. E. Howitt. 
S. F, Edwards. 

B. Barlow. 

J. W. Mitchell. 
W. O. Walker. 

C. J. S. Bethune. 
J. E Howitt. 

J. W. Eastham. 

Dairy School. 

C. W. Nash. 
W. H. Day. 
W. H. Day. 

D. H. Jones. 
H. L. Fulmer. 
L. Caesar. 

W. P. Gamble. 
A. E. Slater. 

Fruit Branch 

R. Harcourt. 

M. A. Purdy. 

Ont. Dental Society. 

Fruit Branch. 

Dairy Branch. 

L. Caesar. 

J. J. Kelso. 

L. Caesar. 

J. E. Howitt. 

W. R, Graham. 

Fruit Branch, 

Fruit Branch, 

S. E. Todd. 

S. F. Edwards, 

Fruit Branch. 

R. Harcourt. 

H. L. Fulmer. 

A. G. Turney. 

Morley Pettit. 

L. Caesar. 

A. McMeans. 

L. Meunier. 

F. M. Clement. 

L. Caesar. 

T, B. Revett, 

A. McMeans, 

Ont. Dental Society. 

Staff of Dairy School. 
Dairy School, 

R. R. Graham. 
J. H. Hare, 
T. A. Benson, 

E. J. Zavitz. 

F. M. Clement. 
Fruit Branch 


F. S. Reeves. 
Morley Pettit. 
Live Stock Branch. 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


INSTITUTES BRANCH 


BULLETIN 215 


Demonstration -Lectures in 

Domestic Science (Foods and Cooking) 

Sewing and Home Nursing 


TORONTO. ONTARIO, AUGUST. 191 J 


BULLETIN 215] [AUGUST, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 


INSTITUTES BRANCH 


Demonstration Lectures in Domestic 

Science, (Cooking) Sewing and 

Home Nursing 

Courses, each consisting of ten Demonstration-Lectures, will be held as follows : 
1. September 29 to December 6, 1913; 2. January 5 to March 1-1; 3. March 16 to 
May 23, 1914. 

Similar courses given under the direction of the Institutes Branch of the 
Department of Agriculture during the winter of 1912-13 proved most successful, 
and a liberal appropriation from the Federal Grant has been set apart for an 
extension of the work during the season of 1913-14. 

The Institutes desiring to take advantage of the oifer will please fill out the 
application form, found in the back of this book, and forward the same either to 
the superintendent, or to the district secretary of the riding in which the branch is 
located. The district and branch officers will be expected to confer in planning 
for the courses and if possible send applications from groups of institutes con- 
veniently located, so that the instructor may readily travel from place to place, 
holding a course at a diiferent point each day, from Monday to Friday inclusive, 
covering the same route from week to week. The classes, will, for the most part, be 
held in the afternoon, beginning at 2 or 2.30 o'clock. Arrangements will be made 
in special cases for the holding of classes in the evening, if desired. The institute 
officers are at liberty to form classes of High School Girls for the study of Domestic 
Science (cooking) and Home Nursing, instruction to such classes being given either 
in the late afternoon or in the evening. Where High School classes are formed, 
the Institute and the class concerned will be expected to furnish all supplies and 
provide a hall or a class room free of cost to the Department. A charge of 25c. 
for the course will be made for each pupil, ten cents to be poid to the instructor, 
and fifteen cents to be used to defray incidental expenses. 

There should be no difficulty in securing suitable halls in which to hoUl classes. 
In some cases public buildings are placed at the disposal of the Institute, free of 
cost, while at other points, Sunday School rooms, or other rooms in connection 
with churches, are available, and occasionally the school trustees place a room at 
the disposal of the Institute for the regular class as well as the High School class. 

The contract forms found on the succeeding pages will indicate the nature of 
the work to be undertaken. Following these contract forms, is a brief report of 
what has already been done in Demonstration-Ijecture work, together with state- 
ments from some of the Instructors and those wlio have taken advantae-e of the 


2 

classes. Blank application form will be found at the end of the book, and appli- 
cations should be in the hands of the Department as soon as possible, and not later 
than September 15th for courses which are to begin early in October. Applications 
for courses to be held in January, February a.nd March, will be received up to the 
middle of October ; and for March, April and May, up to the middle of January. 

TYPICAL CONTEACT. 

Between the Institutes Branch of the Department of Agriculture and 
the Institute 

(Name of) 

Demonstration-Lecture Course in 

FOODS and COOKING. 

The Department of Agriculture agrees to: — 

1. Provide all portable equipment, except the necessary tables, chairs and one 

cookstove. 

2. Provide a teacher who will: 

(a) Give ten Demonstration-Lectures in Domestic Science (Foods and 
Cooking), one each week, to each of the places included in the 
itinerary. 

(&) Furnish such person as the Institute may appoint with written direc- 
tions for any local marketing or special preparations at least one 
week before they are needed. 
Each local Institute agrees to : — 

1. Advertise the course and solicit members for the class with a view of 

securing as large classes as possible. 

2. Provide a room or hall suitable for the lectures and demonstrations, equipped 

with the necessary chairs, tables, cookstove, etc., also to see that the hall 
is properly cleaned, lighted, heated and ventilated. 

3. Provide all materials for demonstration work, 

4. Provide an assistant who will become responsible for the opening of the 

room, do the necessary local marketing, and clear up and clean the dem- 
onstration tables, dishes, etc. (It is usually possible to find some girl 
willing to pay for her attendance on the course in this way.) 

5. Guarantee the sale of tvA-enty-five (25) course tickets at $1.25 per ticket. 

6. Appoint some person who will be required to keep an exact record of the 

attendance of those holding course tickets as well as occasional, at each 
session and report the same to the teacher at the close of the course. 

7. Pay the $25.00 charged for the course within 3 weeks of the commencement 

of the course, and one-half of the receipts above $25.00, whether payments 
be on account of course tickets or single admissions, either during or at 
the conclusion of the course. Payments are to be made to the instructor 
and receipts secured at time of payment. 

8. The Institute concerned is at liberty to sell course tickets in addition to the 

twenty-five required and also to admit members to single lectures at 15 
cents per lesson. 


Signed by; 

.representing the Department of Agriculture. 

, representing Institute. 

, teacher. 

Dated at , this day of 1913. 

IJECU J.ATIOXS ro\EHIX(i ( ()Ch'8K 1 X DOMP:STIC SCIEXCK (FO(^nS 

AX I) COUKIXG). 

Each Institute concerned may select ten lectures tVom the folhiwino- list. 

If any Institute wishes to enlarge any one subject into two lectures in order to 
cover the ground more thoroughly, it may be so arranged. 

The sequence ot the lectures should be left to the lecturer to arrange. She 
will, however, defer tu the wishes of the Institutes as far as the proper develop- 
ment of the whole series will permit. 

The lecturer will place especial emphasis in all lectures upon the food value of 
the foodstuffs used, and upon ihc comparison of money value of the ilitTerent food- 
stuffs, as related to food value. 

liii'.iLi.Ai; EisT. 


Lcrturc Xo. 1. Fruit — Ty[)ital inclliuds of cddkinu': combiuations; different wavs 
of serving fresh fruit. 
3. Vegetables — Fresh, starchy and dried. 

3. Milk — Soups, puddings and combinations, with especial relation 

to infant, children and invalid diet. Invalid cookery. 

4. Cereals and Cheese — Various methods of cooking; their high 

food value compared with other more expensive foods. 

5. Eggs — Correct methods of cooking; variations in methods; 

storage. Substitutes for meat, 
n. Tender ]\leats — I'oastino- and broilinii'; the coi'rect cuts; food 

value compared with other meat cuts and other foods. Tough 

^Icat — Braised dishes, stews and soups. 
T. Raking-])owder breads. Yeast Piread and Fancy Breads. 
8. Cake and little cakes, 
n. Puddings and Desserts. 
li\ S-ilads — Preparation of the ingredients, dressings, etc. 

Opttoxal List. 

1. ]\Iade-over Dishes. 
'I. Fireless Cookery. 

3. Poultry. 

4. Breakfast Dislies. 

5. Table Service. 

The Department pi-cfcrs to liavt' the institutes choose the ncnionstration 
lectures indicated in the "regular list." If, ho\ve\(M-. there is a stronu- i^reference 
for one or more of the t()])ics given in the "o|»lion;d li<* '" in [dace of some of Ihc 
''reg^dar" subjects, they may be substituted. 


Domestic Science (Cooking) Class — Thamesville Institute. 

TYPICAL CONTACT. 

Between the Institutes Branch of the Department of Agriculture and 
the Institute. 

(Name of) 

Demoxstuation-Lkctuke Coukse IX 


SEWING. 

'J'lie Department of Agriculture agrees to: 

1. Furnish an instructor to give ten demonstration lectures as follows: — 

Two lessons on plain and fancy stitches. 
Three lessons on skirt waists. 
Two lessons on skii'ts. 
Three lessons on one-piece dresses. 
Each lesson to continue for two hours. (If necessary, the instructor will 
devote considerably more time to each lesson.) 

2. Have the instructor give the necessary directions to the members of the 

cla-ss from time to time as to the materials required and announcements 
regarding the work to be undertaken. 
Each local Institute agrees to : — 

1. Eorm classes of twenty to twenty-five for which a charge of $-?.00 for each 

person will be made. 

2. Provide a room or liall properly cleaned, lighted, heated and ventilated, and 

furnished with the necessary tables and chairs. The room to be used 
should contain 400 square feet floor space. 

3. Provide at least three sewing machines (these can bo soonreil thmim-h the 

co-operation of the demonstrator free of cost). 


4. Each person will be expected to supply materials to make the garments 

indicated in the lesson list. 
Each person must also provide: 

1 twelve-inch rule ; 1 spool of thread No. 60 ; 1 spool of thread No. 
40; Needles Long Sharp No. 7; Mixed crewel 1 to 6; D. M. C. 
Cotton for fancy stitches. 

5. Provide in addition to the items mentioned, a roll of paper for drafting 

patterns, 22 in. wide, a light, thin quality preferred. Each person re""- 
ceives a shirt waist and skirt pattern cut to measure. 

6. Appoint some person who will be required to keep an exact record of the 

attendance and to collect the fees from the members of the class as well as 
those who take only occasional lectures. Payment for the course 
($40.00) must be made not later than the third week of the course, and 
one half the receipts above $40.00 either during or at the conclusion of 
the course. The charge for single lessons in the Sewing course will be 
twenty-five cents. Payments are to be made to the instructor by the class 
secretary and receipts secured at time of payment. 
Where the Institutes desire it, the Department is willing that two sewing 
classes be formed in the one centre, or, if those taking advantage of this 
course prefer to cover the ground in five weeks, they may arrange to have 
two lessons on the one day, i.e. one in the forenoon and one in the after- 
noon. 


Class in Sewing— Ancaster Institute. 


Note. — lu the Sewing clas.<es conducted by Mrs. N. H. Alteiiburg, it will be im- 
possible to instruct to advantage more than twenty-five. So the Institutes 
are not at liberty to allow occasionals to attend, except whore this can be 
done without making the attendance greater than twenty-live. 

Signed by : 

, representing the Department of Agriculture. 

, representing Institute. 

, teacher. 

Dated at this day of 1013. 

TYPICAL CONTRACT. 

Between the Institutes brancli of the Department of Agriculture and 

the Institute. 

Demonstration Lecture Course in 

HOME NUESING. 

The Department of Agriculture agrees to : — 

i. Provide the necessary equipment for general instruction, such as bandages, 

etc. 
2. Provide an instructor to give ten demonstration-lectures in Home I^ursing, 

including : — 

1. Sick Room — Sanitation, ventilation, care, etc. 

2. Ped-making for various forms of sickness. 

3. The Bath. 

4. Emergencies. 

5. Hot and Cold Applications. 

6. Bandaging. 

7. Disinfectants and observations of symptoms. 
S. The administration of Food and Medicine. 
9. Baby Hygiene. 

10. Review and General Discussion. 

The Local Institute agrees to: — 

1. Secure as large a class as possible through advertising and soliciting. 

2. Provide a suitable room or hall for the Demonstration-Lectures, equipped 

with the necessary chairs and table, also to see that the hall is properly 
clenned, lighted, heated and ventilated. 

3. Guarantee the sale of twenty-five (25) course tickets at $1.25 per ticket. 

4. Appoint some person who will be required to keep an exact record of attend- 

ance of regular course students as well as those who take advantage of 
occasional lectures. 

5. Pay Ihe $25.00 charged for the course within three weeks of the commence- 

ment of the course, and one half of the receipts above $25.00, whether 
payment be made on account of course tickets or single admission, either 
during or at the conclusion of the course. Payments are to be made to 
the instructor and receipts secured at time of payment. 


The Institute is at liberty to sell tickets in addition to the twenty-live required, 
and also to admit members of the Institute to single lectures at fifteen cents per 
lesson. 


Sis:ned by 


Dated at , this. 


,, representing the Department of Agriculture. 

, , representing Institute. 

. , teacher. 

dav of 1913. 


HOME NURSING. 

The importance of this work cannot be over estinuited. Almost every woman 
is called upon at sometime during her life to minister to the sick. As there is no 
time after the emergency arises to prepare for it, every woman should be forearmed 
with some deiijiile knowledge of how to care for the sick. That is briefly the object 
of this course — to enable women to easily obtain a knowledge of how to care for the 
sick in the home, what to do in an emergency and how to .do it, how to render at 
ail times tlie best possible assistance to the doctor or to the nurse, when her services 
are necessary, although very often that expense can be saved because of the ability 
of the woman of the home to handle the situation. 


MISS D. 1. HUGHES, 
Demonstration Lecturer in Home Nursing. 

Throughout the course the women are given lots of experience in reading tlte 
clinical thermometer, counting pulse and respirations. The keeping of a chart is 
also taken u)) : Tliis consists in keeping a simple exact record of the various things 
mentioned thereon. 

The first lesson is a lecture on the sick room. Then follows a demonstration 
on l)ed-making— tliMl is the making of (lie sick bcMh th(> various ways of making it 


for various kinds of cases, changing the bed with the jDatient in it, changing the 
mattress with the patient in bed, etc. 

The next lev'sson is on the bath given in bed for the comfort and cleanliness of 
the patient. During this lesson a talk is given upon the various other baths given in 
sickness, how and why they are given. The foot bath given iu bed and the hot pack 
are also demonstrated. 

Then emergency work is faken up — the regular instruction in First Aid. In, 
this work is included treatment of such things as: Burns and scalds, contusions, 
dislocations, foreign bodies in the ears, eyes, nose, trachea; fractures, hemorrhage, 
shock, sprains, wounds, how_ to distinguish and treat the various forms of uncon- 
sciousness as apoplexy, asphyxia, collapse, convulsions, drowning, epilepsy, fainting, 
hysteria, intoxication, poison, sunstroke, etc. 

The next lesson is devoted to external applications and the following will give 
an idea of wdiat is treated under this head : Inflamation, counter-irritants, poultices, 
fomentations, iodine, liniments, application of cold, ice poultices, ice caps, com- 
]iresses, antiphlogistine, starch poultices, ointments. 

Bandaging is also taken up. Under this comes: Use, nature, sizes and con- 
struction of bandages; points to remember in bandaging, application of circular, 
^ipiral, spiral reverse, recurrent, and figure 8 bandages, bandages for head, eyes, 
jaw, hand, arm, elbow, knee, leg, foot and heel. Tailed bandages, binders, slings 
and handkerchief bandages. 

Disinfectants and observation of symptoms are included in the same lesson — 
the latter is very important. Some of the things dealt with are: Temperature, 
pulse, respiration, tongue, urine, vomiting, faeces and other excreta, color, pain, posi- 
tion, restlessness, etc. 

Then comes a lesson on the administration of food and medicine. 

This is follow^ed by a lesson on Baby Hygiene, and the last lesson is devoted to 
review and general discussion. 

It will be necessary for the classes to provide bed and bedding, towels, basin, 
etc., for lessons 2 and 3. 

The Home Nursing classes can very well be held in the homes of the members. 

COMME-NTTS UPON THE HOME N"lTESIN-G COUESE. 

One woman of 70, in discussing the course after the final lesson, said, '^I don't 
tliink I need say what I think about the course. The fact that at my age I have 
attended, in all kinds of weather, surely speaks of the value I place on these lectures. 
I have only missed one and that day I was sick in bed. and to tell the truth T 
did not mind being sick half as much as I minded missing that class." 

In one class, three generations were represented — the daughter, her mother, 
and her grandmother. The grandmother was heard to say one day before class: 
•'We have all got a lot of good out of these lessons. I won't have as long to make 
use of what I've learned as my daughter and granddaughter, but I'm sure they have 
not enjoyed the course a bit more than I have." 

Demonstration-Lectures in 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE (COOKING), SEWING AND HOME NURSING. 

While the study of Domestic Science in its broadest sense and its practical 
application to the every-day activities of the rural home has for many years been a 


matter of interest and great impurlaiice, its u&et'uluess lia.s been mteusitied as a 
result of the change in economic and social conditions in the counti'y districts. 
AA'ith the scarcity of labour and the increasing value of the products ol the farm, 
it becomes the women of the farm, as well as the city residents, to study the food 
values and prices of the various products at their disposal, methods of cooking, 
labour saving devices, clotliing, care of the sick, etc., etc. 

Opportunities for systematic instruction along Domestic Science lines have 
been provided only in a limited number of our larger centres of population, with the 
result that a very small proportion of the girls from our rural districts have taken 
advantage of the instruction offered. 

Directors of education in our schools and colleges are attaching more and more 
importance to Domestic Science. The special efforts along this line, by the Y.W.C.A., 
technical schools, hulies" colleges and private schools, have, for the most part, 
benefited only our young women. What about the great band of women, (young, 
middle aged and old) who cannot take advantage of the above mentioned facilities, 
but who are desirous of learning something of that science which has made such 
great progress during recent years and which can be made of great value even to 
women who have had many years of experience in directing the activities of a 
bousehold and in performing the numerous tasks associated with homemaking. 

The chief aim of those who have had to do with the work of the Women's 
Institutes in the Province of Ontario has been to direct the women of the country, 
town and village as to how best to utilize the forces at their command: — standard 
works, reports, bulletins, and periodicals ; practical experience ; healthful sociability, 
etc. — to the best advantage, and also to instruct them t(T a limited extent in domestic 
science, home nursing, child welfare, etc. 

A survey of the Institute work in this Province will be of interest at this point. 

Some thirty years ago, systematic instruction for farmers — the giving of 
lectures by agricultural scientists and practical farmers in the rural districts — was 
inaugurated. From the beginning, the women living on the farm took more or 
less interest in these lectures and read some of the articles appearing in the Depart- 
mental publications, especially those bearing upon dairying, fruit growing, poultry 
raising, gardening and other activities in which the w'omen on the farm were 
specially interested. An evidence of their appreciation was shown in the request 
for a separate organization to deal with only those features of work with which 
women are directly concerned. As a result, what is know as the Women's Institutes 
of Ontario had their beginning some seventeen years ago, and in 1900 there were 
33 institutes with a membership of 1,600, while to-day we have nearly 800 separate 
organizations with a membership of over 25,000. 

While the activities from the first embraced all that is implied in the con- 
stitution, — " The objects of Women's Institutes shall be the dissemination of know- 
ledge relating to domestic economy, including household architecture, with special 
attention to home sanitation ; a better understanding of the economic and hygienic 
value of foods, clothing and fuel, and a more scientific care and training of children 
with a view to raising the general standard of the health and morals of our people — " 
much has been added thereto in recent years. Food values, cooking, preserving, 
hygiene, feeding of invalids and children, training of chihlren. literature in the 
home, beautifying the home, etc.. wore embraced from the first, but of recent years 
cliild welfare in its broadest sense, social questions, civic improvement, business 
methods for women, laws governing women and children, school improvement, rest 
rooms for women, philanthropic work, in fart all matters which have for their object 


10 

the betterment of lionie and (.-uniniunity runditiuihs ha\e been added to the list of 
their good worlvs. 

Having laken up Domestic Science to a limited extent by isohxted lectures, 
occasional demonstrations, and by unsystematic study, tbe members became im- 
pressed witli its value and asked that provision be made for giving them systematic 
instruction along these lines. Tlie first attempt to give groups of women living 
in tbe rural district such instruction was undertaken in the fall of 1911 at the 
following places where classes of at least twenty-five were formed, and at two 
points, Caledonia and Dunnville, evening classes were held for the benefit of the 
High School girls : — Cayuga, Dunnville, Delhi, Hagersville, Caledonia, Canfield. 
riie average attendance at the classes was thirty-five, and at one point the attend- 
ance was over seventy-five. The lecturer. Mrs. C. H. Burns, a graduate of 
MacDonald Institute, Guelph. spent one day a week at each point for a period of 
fifteen weeks. 

The success which attended this first eft'ort indicates the interest which mature 
women of responsibility take in efforts towards their instruction along Domestic 
Science lines. 

The Department was encouraged to extend this new and promising form of 
instruction during the season of 1912-13. The institutes accepted the announce- 
ment with great enthusiasm and responded by applying for instruction at more 
points than could be served. 

The folb)wiiio: table indicates the nature and extent of the work done: 


Nature of Course 


District 


Foods and their preoaraliuu , 


Xorthuniberlaud 

iLambton and Kent . . 

Middlesex and 
Lambton 


Lanarl'C 


Sewing- 


Lincoln, Wei land. 
Wentworth, Brant 
and Waterloo 


Wentworth 


Combination courses in Sewing, 
Foods and Home Nursing York . 


No. of 
places 


13 


No. of 

lessons in 

course 


15 
15 

15 
15 

10 
4 

cS to 12 


No. of 
persons who 
took course 

186 
154 

349 
265 

491 
.31 

241 


1.667 


Besides those who took the regular course of lectures a number attended and 
paid for only occasional lectures. 

The ^Vm^K Appi.'kctatf.d. 


In order that our readers may be informed regarding the apin-eciaiion of tliis 
work on the part of those wlio took the course, and the views of ibe lecturers 
engaged, we print below extracts from communications received. 


11 


MISS GERTRUDE GRAY, 
Demonstrator in Cooking. 

COUBSE IN FOODS AXD COOKING. 

By GEKTRL^nE (ii;ay, Demoxstration' Lectueer, Tokonto. 


Olio tiling tliat t]n W'onieirs Institutes stand tor — i)ar excellence — 'is progress, 
progress in thought, in self-development, in efficiency. 

In the crusade which modem luisincss now wages for efficiency and conserva- 
tion of energy we ]ia\e an example worthy of imitation in the liome. 

The latest itse to which the nioxing j)icture nntchine has lieen put is in manu- 
facturing ])lants where employers are seeking to eliminate useless and time con- 
suming movements on the part of their employees, for example: Motion pictures, 
carefully timeil. weiv taken of a worker as he did his work. These films were de- 
veloped, thiown on a screen, and carefully studied. The result was that super- 
fluous motion wa- at oiiee deteettil. eliminated from the screen, and the consequent 
pictures Used to instruct younger, unskilleil wdrkers. 

A similar scrutiny of household o])ei'ations reveals the need I'oi- gi'(>ater efficiency 
and more time and onergv con>ei'ving nu'thods there, whei'e skilleil iahour is tlic 
exception rather than the rule. As the result of the lack of technical education in 
our schools, until fairly recent years, many present-day home-makers find (hem- 
selves M'ithout the scientific knowle;lge which. cou])ItMl wiHi ]u'actical experience. 
marks the competent worker. 

Purely nux-hanienl alidiiv will noi suffice io-day, and intelligent understanding 
(il the underlyiii'^- principles of one'- woi'k is necessai'y to make of that work the 
crreatest success. 


12 

A realization of this fact has led to a request from women in our institutes 
for systematic instruction in different branches of home work. As a result, there 
are now being given in our Province, to different groups of Institutes, Demonstra- 
tion-Lecture Courses. These aim to In-ing to the home-makers and the girls who 
attend, the information of our Household Science Schools in an abbreviated form. 
Anything new has to demonstrate its claim to recognition and support. Last year's 
work has done that. A number of courses have already been given and the hearty 
support and co-operation of the members of the classes seem to justify a continu- 
ance of the work on more comprehensive lines. 

lia\ing had charge of two courses in Food Preparation, one in Northumberland 
and one in I<ambto]i and Kent, I can write more definitely of them than of the 
others. Three weeks before the work started I visited the counties, became acquainted 
with the officers at each i^laee and made arrangements for transportation. The direc- 
tions sent out by the Dej^artment beforehand, however, were so explicit that every- 
thing was pretty well understood by the officers and it was comparatively easy to 
start the work. Arrangements were made for halls or other suitable places to l)e 
used throughout the course. In two places kitchens were used. The advertising 
is also done I)y the local people and much of the success of the work, so far as the 
size of the classes is concerned, depends on the way it is advertised. It should be 
definitely stated in all press notices that anyone is welcome to attend and a personal 
invitation is most effective with some. A secretary of one of the branches told 
many ladies of the work by phone and asked them to join, and as a result that 
class is the largest in the district. 

In each demonstration, special emphasis is laid on the food value of the food- 
stuffs used, their costs as related to nutritive value, and a practical demonstration 
given by preparing several dishes. The ladies bring note-books and pencils, and 
many of them come early in order to copy the recipes. Many of the younger mem- 
bers, in partiicular, write down facts given concerning the food used, and each 
member brings a spoon or fork that she may taste the food prepared. Eating or 
drinking always increases sociahility, even if the food be but small in amount, as it 
invariably is when but "a taste'' for each person is reckoned on. However, it 
seemed to produce the desired effect. It stimulates the timid to challenge the method 
followed or to ask for further information on some point and tempts all to linger 
at the conclusion of the afternoon's work for a visit with neighbor or friend. The 
supplies used in the cooking demonstrations are paid for by the local Institute or 
different ladies take turns in supplying part of them each day, thus materially 
lessening the cost to the Institute. 

At most of the places assistants are provided, many of whom are young girls 
who are getting the course free for the help they give. They assist with the work 
of preparation and washing up the dishes. At many places classes are held for the 
school girls, but in my district this has not been feasible. The attendance at the 
classes varies somewhat, owing to unfavorable weather or unusually busy times. This 
applies more to occasional than to course members. In two or three places in 
Lam'bton the members have to drive or walk long distances, yet the attendance 
maintains a good average. The smallest class has twenty-seven course members, 
and the largest class has fifty-two. 

It is rather a remarkable fact, yet true, nevertheless, that those most proficient 
in this branch of home work are the most interested in the demonstrations, perhaps 
because they are finding out for the first time the reason "why" for a familiar 
process, or perhaps because new hints or new methods are an incentive to experi- 
menting at home. 


The aim throughout is not to teach fancy cooking, but plain serviceable dishes, 
giving basic recipes ^vhich are capable of variation, and to combine with these such 
facts as will bring a realization of the importance of the work and its vast influence 
on human well-being. 

Life makes numberless demands upon the system which cooking can assist it 
to meet. The more civilized we become the more unexpected and severe is the 
wear and tear of daily existence. The art of cooking lies in providing such a food 
supply that, while containing the elements essential to good nutrition it shall be 
suited to the requirements of season, work and age, and shall combine economy 
with due variety of flavour. 

Cooking is a science as well as an art, because it has laws of its own which it 
is our duty to discover, to learn and to apply. 

It is also a service often despised and left in the hands of the ignorant or the 
careless. No other art or science is so little understood, so lig'htly esteemed or so 
casually performed, and there is no service the dignity and worth of which are less 
perceived. 

A¥ APPKECTATIO^T OF THE DOMESTIC SCIENCE COFRSE: (FOODS 

AND COOKING). 

By Ethel M. Chapman, Demonstration Lecturer, Toronto. 

In the earlier days of Women's Institute work, the ]:)rogrammes consisted 
almost entirely of demonstrations and discussions along the lines of cookery and 
housekeeping. There was usually no system in the arrangement of the topics 
to be taken up ; the programmes were necessarily outlined under difficulties 
so far as procuring just the right person to take up the subject desired was con- 
cerned, and yet, these, I am sure were always more or less helpful. Now, a few 
organizations are going to the other extreme and subjects pertaining to practical 
cooking and housekeeping are almost entirely eliminated, giving place to problems 
of education, social life, and philanthropy in general. This we feel is a serious 
mistake. These questions certainly should have their place, and possibly the first 
place, but the greater part of every homemaker's time is spent in feeding her 
family and caring for her home. Few women can escape it even if they should 
want to, and we are proud to know that our Institute women realize that they 
could find no higher profession. Anyway cooking has an ethical as well as a 
practical value, for "a, hungry man is an angry man,'' and the well-nourished 
individual is more likely to be normal mentally and morally as well as physically. 
This is why the Demonstration Lecture Courses have been so popular with \he 
progressive women of the province. 

When this course of demonstration lectures in domestic science was first talked 
about, some people seemed to get the idea that a demonstrator would be sent out 
to teach the preparation of several fancy impractical and expensive dishes. They 
were even worried about the cost of materials to be supplied by the Institute. How- 
ever, they soon found that this averaged only sixty cents a week, and that the 
dishes prepared, far from being elaborate, were made to illustrate how to serve 
the common foods in the most attractive palatable and wholesome way. This neces- 
sarily involves a systematic, scientific study of foods and nutrition. Every other 
line of work is conducted along scientific lines to-day, and why not housekeeping? 
Even the farmer makes a study of what foods will make the best balanced ration 
for his stock, and what variety is necessary to keep them in the best possible 


u 

condition, while we wlio are feeding not merely animals Init human beini^-s. often 
give the subject little consideration. We nuiy feed the working man and old 
people and children practically the same diet Avithout intelligently taking thought 
of their respective needs. We may feed our families whatever they like without 
knowing whether it is best for them, and we may — altlioiigh these cases are rare — 
serve what is least trouble to ourselves without considering whether we are "■starv- 
ing" them. Every intelligent homemaker, nowadays is more or less interested in 
food values, but there is, I believe, no subject more difficult to study alone, from 
bulletins. Getting the information from a demonstrated lecture iiives it color and 
makes it stick. 

Es])ecially are these lessons valuable and interesting to young Avomen and 
girls. I lirmly believe that every girl should lune an opportunity to study a certairi 
amount of domestic science, but I know just as well that at present it is impossible 
for the great majority of our girls to go to college. But the Demonstration Lecture 
Course brings the college to them, and they seldom fail to appreciate it. Last 
fall I had several girls driving a distance of from seven to ten miles to attend 
the classes, and they never missed a meeting either. I had one night class of 
tliirtv girls who were l)usy in stores and othces during the day, and their enthusiasm 
was a never failing inspiration. Of the High School classes there were very few 
iudced who did not come to me regularly to rcjxirt their experiences in ''trying 
the things'" at home, and their mothers unanimously testified that nothing before 
had ever created in them such an interest in housework. This is where the courses 
are going to do tlieir l)est work. This is the first step in introducing Domestic 
Science into the High Schools of the smaller towns. 

But the younger people are not the only members who take the work seriously. 
One Institute meml)er finding her social duties too pressing to attend tlu' class for 
an afternoon each week, said to her neiglil)or, 'T really haven't time to go, Init 
I'll get the recipes from you." 

"The recipes!" hei' friend replied indignantly, '"it isn't recipes. You can 
get reci})es in your cook book'. It's how to do things and why you do them." 

One very bright little woman who suppoi'tcd hei' family liy taking in washing 
and catering for parties and weddings, said to me, "You know |)co|)le wonder how 
1 can afford to spend a dollar on the lessons, but it has paid me several times 
over already, and you learn so nianv little ways of making things look nice and 
tasty." 

And what I am surt' will appeal to many of the wives in our Institute is that 
the men of the households almost univei'sally agree that the "Cooking Class" is 
the best thing the Institute has undertaken yet. Only once did I hear this 
criticism from the head of a house. "You'll never know what I've suffered since 
you came to town," but he did not look as though he were telling the truth. 

AN APPRECIATION OF THE COOKING COUPSE. 

Probably I can ibest give an appreciation of the Demonstration Lecture Course 
by stating some of the benefits that we in Thamesville are deriving from our 
course. 

Firs! : it seems to me that the greatest good of the course is the "creation 
of a conscience," the realization that comes to us as we learn the uses of different 
foods in the system and what combinations arc necessary that we who cook ]ia\e 
a sacred obligation pro])erly to develop the bodies of those whom \\v feed. 


15 

Sn-oitd: We are receiving praftical assistance in our metl)ods of cooking, 
and are learning to be economical not only as to money, but also as to the nutritive 
value of our foods. In addition, prol)ably every one has been sbown how to over- 
come some of her difficulties. One member told me that to liave learned to prepare 
gelatine by softening the powder in cold water before adding boiling water is 
worth a dollar to her, and several claim to have got the worth of their money in 
discovering that cooking cabbage will make no odor if it be left uncovered and 
the water be changed once or twice, and these are but two of many useful hints 
given. 

Third: Tastefulness is a subject on which our Demonstrator, Miss Gray, has 
been silently eloquent. Each day by means of a candied cherry or two, a little 
jelly, a bit of parsley or something equally simple and inexpensive she makes her 
dishes look most attractive. 

Fourlh : "With knowledge comes interest," as one of our members remarked 
the other day, "One of the best things about our classes is that we get interested 
in our own work and when we meet we discuss our methods with one another." 

Fifih : The Demonstration Lecture Course is furthering the good work of 
the Women's Institutes in breaking down sectarian and class prejudices. 

"^'It is the way to make us better friends more known" 
And in our large weekly gatherings many who had scarcely met before are becom- 
ing "more known." 

Thamesville has a membership of fifty-two, and a good attendance of occasionals 
as well. As only half of the course has been given it is impossible to speak fully 
of its merits, but the concensus of opinion is that the Demonstration Lecture 
Course is proving an unqualified success. 

AXXA J. COUTTS, 

Secretary of the Thamesville Branch Women's Institute. 
April W, 1913. 

ExTTiACT Fl^OVl Ll'/l'TKI! 1? F.CKIVKI) I'KO.M MjSS XkLI.II- AlLELY, DEMONSTRATION 

Lecturer, Xorland. 

A^et in its infancy the Demonstration Lecture work of the Women's Institute 
is proving to be a grand movement and one that is bound to grow. In my work 
as a Demonstrator, I found unusual interest displayed. Xot only were the 
women anxious to acquire new ideas in cookery — new recipes, etc. — but the majority 
of the listeners were thoroughly interested in the reasons for the various pro- 
cesses, and that is what we want. I admit that I was surprised at the very 
evident desire for knowledge concerning the value, composition and digestibility of 
our food-stuffs. A sympathy like this brings out the best in a teacher, and it 
results in an exchange of ideas which must be a benefit to all, and in the creation 
of. an interest which is bound to grow. Very little in the great home economic 
movement can be accomplished, seemingly, in the W^w lectures and demonstrations 
given, yet it fulfils its aim. which is to arouse au interest, then start the "seekers^^ 
in the right direction, rndoubtedly, many will broaden their study until it 
includes the science of all ibe duties of the honu'. 

Extract from Com-mitxica riox Uecetved vmom ]\riss A.nxik MacDoxai,]), 
Demonsti; vnox Li:( rri!i;i;. L\\ai;k. 

Although the work was new to me. in a way. yet I feel from the marks of 
appreciation sbown that my work was not in vain, i'eoplc, especially the younger 


16 

set, seemed to be must interested in the classes, and, from the splendid attendance, 
evidently felt the good of them. 

As for the theory part of the lessons, it seems to be of interest as well as 
the practical. Another point of very much importance is simplicity. Simple 
recipes with new combinations in food stuffs and dainty serving seem to be much 
appreciated. In this district only one town had attendance from school girls. 
When the classes are being formed it would be well to try hard for the school 
class, because the girls seem to like the classes. As the course finished in this 
district, there were remarks of regret that the classes were over, as they afforded 
a place of meeting and something to do, apart from the beneficial side. 

DEMONSTRATION LECTUEE COURSE IN SEATING. 

By Miss E. D. Watson, Aye. 

The course was most successful. We feel it one of the most satisfactory 
things yet undertaken by the Institute. We ran three classes, two afternoon and 
one evening. You will see that the attendance for the full course was 739, making 
an average w^eekly attendance of nearly 73. This is, I think, unusually high, 
considering the miserable roads, the heavy storms and the fact that the great 
majority of the women were driving one, two and some five and six miles. They 
were most enthusiastic from start to finish. Besides taking the evening class 
myself, I saw all the classes at work at least part of the lesson, and I feel that 
too much praise cannot be given Mrs. Altenburg for the way she handled her 
work; for the individual attention each got, for what she made them do, and 
for her patience. They were difficult classes, all sorts and conditions, all ages 
from fourteen to fifty, from women who knew absolutely nothing about sewing 
to a few who made some of their plainer dresses. The great majority of them 
made a shirt-waist, a skirt and a one-piece dress, and I am still astonished at 
the high average of the work. 

More ought to be charged for the lessons. With a good teacher, they are 
worth more. You will be interested to know that we have had since Christmas 
five University Extension lectures in connection with the Institute. Prof. iTorning, 
on "England and Germany," and the "Balkan"' question : Dr. Amyot on "Natural 
Defences of the Body against Infection." and Principal Hutton, on "Canada's 
place ill the Empire." 

BENEFITS DERIVED FROM MRS. ALTENBURG'S CLASS. 

Miss Margaret Kyle, Aye. 

Early in January, it was announced under the auspices of the Women's Insti- 
tute that if a class of twenty-five could be formed a Demonstrator in sewing would 
Jbs -sent to Ayr. There was no difficulty in securing twenty-five, and before the 
Demonstrator, Mrs. Altenburg, came to make final arrangements for the class the 
number had increased to seventy, making it necessary to form three classes, one 
to meet on Friday afternoon, one on Friday evening and a third on Saturday 
afternoon. There w^ere ten lessons in four divisions : the first two on plain and 
fancy stitches, three on a shirt waist, two on a skirt and the last three on a one- 
piece dress. The lessons were supposed to be an hour and a half in length, but 
Mrs. Altenburg generously extended the time to three hours. 


We were asked to bring to the first lesson lialf yard of lawn, two white spools, 
a 12 inch ruler, a pair of scissors, and a needle number 7, long, sharp; and thus 
armed we betook ourselves to the library hall, where under the careful attentions 
of Mrs. Altenburg we were instructed in the art of plain stitches, hemming, running, 
back stitching, overcasting, rolled hem, gathered ruffle, button holes, decorative 
stitches, chain (plain and fancy), braiding, birdseye, bias stitch (single, double, 
fancy), herringbone, French knot, crowtacks. Quite a number of these operations 
were not new to us, but Mrs. Altenburg had new and improved methods for many 
of them, for instance, her method of making a button-hole was different from the 
one in general favor here. She told us also that in making a button-hole in 
cloth of a coarse loose weave, to stitch with the machine on each side before cutting 
the hole. At this first lesson she took the measurement of each member of tbe 


MRS. N. H. ALTENBURG 
Demonstration Lecturer in Sewing. 


class. Her French knot was a great improvement on the old way of making it. 
But the real business seemed to begin with the shirt waist. To know exactly 
how to put a plaquet on a shirt waist sleeve is information which no amateur 
dressmaker will despise and Mrs. Altenburg's method required no pattern, which 
seemed a special recommendation. Since then we have heard that a member of 
^Irs. Altenburg's Burford Class has said that she considers the lesson on the 
l)laquet alone worth her fee. Then with our shirt waist fitted on^ some one 
pinned the shaped collar closely to its place without putting her fingers inside 
the neck band, and we in turn performed this duty for some one else. Besides 
learning how to pin on the collar we learned to preserve a calm exterior although 
suffering considerable anxiety as to the ultimate fate of our neck. We also 
learned where to cut the armhole if it chanced to require trimming, where to 
place the seam of The sleeve in relation to the sliirt waist and how to rcilncc the 


18 

gathers in the sleeve to the vanishing point, a feat of no mean order. Mrs. A. 
floes not approve of French seams in shii't waists and she says all seams to Iftok 
well slionld be of a good width, an inch or three-qnartei's of an ineli at least. 

When we began the skirts, each one M'as given a pattern which could l)e 
used for a 2, 3, or -t piece skirt, and we used this pattern witli a panel for our 
separate skirts, and are iising it again as a 3 or 4 piece skirt in the one-piece 
dress. "We were given very clear directions for cutting tbe panel and had no 
difficulty in doing it without the pattern. When basted up the skirts fitted per- 
fectly. We were shown how to pin the belt on and how to get tbe length, each 
member of the class doing this for some other member. Mrs. A. gathers the 
edge of the hen^, distributing the fulness so as to do away with all ])laits. 

The kimona waist seemed to be the object of the greatest interest and many 
were the conversations on the relative merits of a kimona and a waist of the set-in 
sleeve variety. We were given no pattern for the kimona waist, but Afrs. A"s. 
instructions, as in the draughting of the panel, were most explicit and under her 
watchful eye there were no mishaps. The little 3 inch s<|uare wliich sbc used under 
the arm was a surprise to most of us, and being placed so as to draw on the bias 
will prevent tearing which has always been a serious defect in the kimona waist. 
When through we each had a shirt waist, a skirt, a one-piece dress and perfect 
fitting patterns for each of these, which we shall be able to use for ourselves with 
profit and pleasure; for surely we must be l)etter qualified after our course with 
Mrs. Altenburg to meet the difficulties that so often present themselves in dress- 
making. 

ExTIiACT FFMM COMMUXICATIOX KeCEIVED FROM MiSS FuAXCES BeVAX, AxCASTEK. 

Our Branch his just finished the class in dressmaking under Mrs. Altenburg, 
and everyone is more than pleased with it. 

Each woman has such pretty new things and so beautifully made, quite 
elaborate silk dresses and some muslins, but one and all are satisfied, with the one 
exception ; one woman who made a |)rint dress has been so angry with herself for 
not making up better stuff. She was rather skeptical about the class and thought 
any old thing would do. but when she saw the lovely dresses of the others she wished 
she had something better. 

The class has done the Institute a world of good. We charged each non- 
member 25c. extra, so they should become members, and already they are showing 
great interest in the work of tbe \V. T.. and attend the meetings. 


19 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

WOMEN'S INSTITUTES 

Application for Special Course of Lectures 1913-14 

Name of Institute 

Course chosen (Cooking, Home Nursing, or Sewing) 

(make X through the Course chosen) 
Number who have definitely promised to take advantage of the Course, if arranged 
for 

Number of additional persons who will probably take advantage of the full Course 


Probable number who will take advantage of occasional lectures 
Prospects for class of school girls 


Place where regular class will be held . . . 
Place where school girls' class will be held 
Day of week preferred 


Accommodation for board and lodging for demonstrator 


Time chosen for Course, October 6th to December 13th 

January 5th to March 14th . . 

March 16th to May 23rd 

(make X opposite time preferred) 
Remarks 


Branch President 

Branch Secretary 

Place 

Date 

Note This form to be filled in and forwarded to the District Secretary or Geo. A. Putnam, Su- 
perintendent of Institutes, Parliament Buildingrs, Toronto, Ont. at as early a date as possible 
If application is sent direct to the Department, the District Secretary should be notified. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 

Published by the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. 


Serial 
No. Date. 

169 Feb. 1909 


170 Mar. 1909 


171 April 1909 


172 


May 


1909 


173 


Oct. 


1909 


174 


Dec. 


1909 


175 


Dec. 


1909 


176 


Dec. 


1909 


177 


Dec. 


1909 


178 


Dec. 


1909 


179 


Feb. 


1910 


180 


April 


1910 


181 


June 


1910 


182 


July 


1910 


183 


Aug. 


1910 


184 


Nov. 


1910 


185 


Nov. 


1910 


186 


Dec. 


1910 


187 


Jan. 


1911 


188 


April 


1911 


189 


May 


1911 


190 


May 


1911 


191 


June 


1911 


192 


July 


1911 


193 


Nov. 


1911 


194 


Dec. 


1911 


195 


Jan. 


1912 


196 


Jan. 


1912 


197 


Feb. 


1912 


198 


Feb. 


1912 


199 


Feb. 


1912 


200 


April 


1912 


201 


May 


1912 


202 


May 


1912 


203 


May 


1912 


204 


June 


1912 


205 


Sept. 


1912 


206 


Nov. 


1912 


207 


Dec. 


1912 


208 


Jan. 


1913 


209 March 1913 

210 March 1913 

211 March 1913 

212 April 1913 

213 April 1913 

214 May 1913 

215 Aug. 1913 


Title. Author. 

Legume Bacteria: Further Studies of Nitro- f S. F. Edwards, 

gen Accumulation in the Leguminosae . . \ B. Barlow. 

Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | ^^' ^?iker.' 

(Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Bethune. 

Fungus Diseases Affecting Vegetables | j' w Ealtham 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) ... Dairy School. 

Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

Farm Underdrainage: Does It Pay? W. H. Day. 

Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees D, H. Jones. 

_,„,.„,, f H. L. Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash | l. Caesar. 

Character and Treatment of Swamp or f W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils I A. E. Slater. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 

(No. 147 revised) Fruit Branch 

Flour and Breadmaking | ^ A^^'purdy. 

The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch. 

Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Graham. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Toad. 

Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

Insectides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised! 5' 1^^''_9°"'"*^- 

* H. L. !< ulmer. 

Tomatoes A. G. Turney. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

Onions A. McMeans. 

Fruit Juices L. Meunier. 

Peach Diseases F. M. Clement. 

Peach GroA'ing in Ontario L. Caesar. 

Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McAieans. 

Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) .. C 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making J Staff of Dairy School. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . 1 Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm [ 

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions f J. H. Hare. 

in Ontario County \ T. A. Benson. 

Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavitz. 

Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. F. M. Clement. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters... Fruit Branch 

(No. 179 revised.) 

Orchard Surveys in Dundas, Stormont and 

Glengarry F. S. Reeves. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

Sheep Raising in Ontario: Does it Pay? Live Stock Branch. 

Demonstration Lectures in Domestic Science, 

Sewing and Nursing Institutes Branch. 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


FRUIT BRANCH 


BULLETIN 216 


BOX-PACKING 

OF 

APPLES 

By 
E. F. PALMER, B.S.A. 


TORONTO, ONTARIO, OCTOBER, 1913 


BULLETIN 216] [OCTOBER, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

FRUIT BRANCH 

Box-Packing of Apples 

E. F. PALMER 

INTRODUCTION. 

The packing of apples in boxes is an established custom in British Columbia 
and the Pacific States. In Ontario, ' box packing is, as yet, comparatively in its 
infancy. With every year, however, it is attaining to greater prominence, and 
rightly so, as no matter how good a product may be, unless it is packed in such a 
way as to reach the market in good condition, and at the same time be attractive, 
it will not bring the highest prices. But a good product handled in an attractive 
package is sure to be the first in demand and to command a good price, even when 
the market is glutted. 

It is almost a crime to handle some of the choice fruit in the way it is being 
handled. Of course, a certain percentage of the fruit is too small, too imperfect 
to warrant the extra outlay. Nevertheless, an attractive package will often sell 
fruit that is not of the highest quality; that is, second-grade fruit, if well packed, 
will often bring a profit where there might otherwise have been a loss; but what 
we should strive to do is to pack quality fruit in quality packages. In the very 
beginning, it must be clearly understood that to receive the best returns we must 
not only understand the details of packing, which, after all, are matters of ex- 
perience, but we must be strictly honest and scrupulously clean. These factors, 
coupled with methods approved as correct, will bring success in apple packing. 

Box packing is destined to become a more important factor each year. For, 
though the day of high prices is probably gone forever, this fact in itself brings 
the box-packed fruit in more direct competition with barrel-packed fruit. The 
result is that the market for barreled fruit will become more and more restricted 
each year, and there will be a demand for larger and larger quantities of boxed 
apples. 

The barrel undoubtedly encourages carelessness in grading for quality and size. 
It has been the package, not so much of inferior grades of apples, as un.graded apples. 
T.et the top and bottom of the barrel be nicely "faced," and the space between invites 
ungraded fruit. The box, on the contrary, requires close grading for size, as the 
apples must be uniform to pack properly. This close grading further insures that 
all defective fruit will be found and culled out. 


2 

BOX vs. BAEREL. 

The question of boxes versus barrels has been discussed in Eastern Canada for 
a number of years. In British Columbia, no barrels are used at the present time. 
In Ontario, however, conditions are such that it would seem neither package 
possesses all the virtues. The package used must be dependent largely on the grade 
of fruit, the variety, and the market. 

Regarding the small package, the following points have been pretty well 
established : — 

1. All fancy high-priced apples should be shipped in boxes. 

2. Only the best grades are preferred. 

3. The box is the only practical package in which an apple can be transported 
with any reasonable degree of economy, in a fit condition for the highest export 
trade. 

As already stated, box packing is still in its infancy in Ontario. For several 
years past, a few shippers have been using the box regularly, while others have 
merely experimented with it. Those who use the box regularly, pack their better 
grade of fruit in it, and consider it the better package, while the experimenters 
have, in only a few cases, pronounced the box a success. This is doubtless due to 
the fact that nearly all those using the box on trial did so with unexperienced 
packers. In some cases, the boxes were packed like barrels; that is, the box was 
faced as in barrel packing, and the remainder of the apples simply rolled in on 
top of this. The package was then finished in every respect like barrel packing, 
with no attempt at arranging the apples in tiers. Naturally, the results were not 
in accord with what these men had doubtless heard about box-packed fruit, and 
it would obviously be unfair to draw conclusions regarding box versus barrel from 
such experiments. Undoubtedly both packages have a place — the box for the high- 
class trade and the barrel for the other. 

PACKIN-G. 

The following paragraph taken from an article by Eoy C. Brock, in the Sep- 
tember issue of Better Fruit for 1911, gives a comprehensive idea of the under- 
lying principles of box-packing. 

" Packing is the classification of fruit in the proper sizes by placing fruit of 
the same size solidly into boxes in such a manner as to insure uniformity of appear- 
ance, neatness, and protection from bruising. The purpose of careful packing is 
to make the box of fruit as attractive as possible to the purchaser, and obtain 
thereby for it the highest possible price." 

Following out the idea contained in these few words, the essentials of a good 
pack may be briefly stated as follows : — 

1. The pack must be so firm that there is no chance for the fruit to shift in 
any way. To have this possible, it is almost necessary that each apple touch all 
those surrounding it in the proper way. 

2. Bulge probably ranks next to firmness in importance. The purpose of the 
bulge is that as the packed apples shrink during storage, the cover will contract, 
and thus continue to hold the apples firm. While this is the primary reason for a 
bulge, it probably has a beneficial influence on the purchaser also. 

" A bulge of 11/4 to lyo inches, counting both top and bottom of the box, is 
sufficient. A bulge of 2 inches or more is unnecessary and undesirable, as the 
fruit is more liable to be bruised. 

3. Regularity of pack is very important. On no account should a box be 
started with one size of apple and finished with another, or the style of pack 


changed. Bruising is very liable to result where such changes in size of fruit or 
style of pack are made. 

4. Smoothness and finish to a pack are very essential. Contrary to a pretty 
general belief in some sections, the box will not sell the apples. The high prices 
received for box apples rely in a large measure on the appearance of the pack. The 
finished pack should be regular in size and perfect in alignment, and, if the fruit 
is wrapped, smoothness of wrap is of great importance. 

5. Grading of the fruit to color, as well as size, is essential. In other words, 
uniformity of color is desirable. 

Packing Houses. 
A well-equipped packing house is essential to good packing. There should be 
an abundance of light, thorough ventilation, just the right amount of room, handy 
arrangement and cleanliness. Plenty of ligJit is very important, as no packer, 
however expert, can do high-grade work in a poorly lighted room. He needs light 
to aid in selecting fruit as to size and freedom from blemishes, as well as in the 
actual operation of packing. 


/ 


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Fig. 1. Ground plan of a Packing House, 32' x 40'. 


■<i: 


The packing house should be large enough to accommodate the maximum 
crop, but no larger, as it is almost as inconvenient to have a house too large as too 
small. "A place for everything and everything in its place" will materially de- 
crease the amount of floor space required. Have a well-lighted portion equipped 
with sufficient packing tables; a place for the fruit before packing; for the packed 
products ; for the culls ; and a good loft or other room for storing packing materials. 
Everything should be so arranged that the fruit will be continually moving from 
the receiving door to the store-room for the packed product. That is, the unpacked 
should be stored at one end of the house as it is received from the orchard. Next 
should come the grading tables, then the packing tables, the nailing press, and 
finally the store-room. In other words, a system should be developed which will 
do away with all unnecessary handling. The more perfect the system, the less the 
cost of packing. 


Central Packing House. 


Where the central packing house method is employed, the packing is, on the 
average, much superior to other methods. When a grower packs his own fruit, 
experience has shown that he is very liable to grade considerable quantities of ISTo. 2 
fruit as No. 1. The practice should be: When in douht as to ike grade of an apple_. 
place it in the grade below. With disinterested packers, this is possible, but, in the 
other case, human nature usually prevails. 


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Fig. 2. Ground plan of a Packing House, 40' x 60'. 

The following extract from an article by A. McN'eill, Chief Fruit Division, 
Ottawa, published in the September issue of Better Fruit for 1910, will serve to 
bear out the above remarks: — 

" In the enforcement of the Canadian Fruit Marks Act, it has been found 
necessary to make an average of about fifty prosecutions a year. 

" There are now between fifty and sixty co-operative apple-selling associations 
in the Dominion of Canada, and in no instance has a co-operative association been 
fined. The interpretation of this fact is that the co-operative system removes very 
largely all temptation to mark or pack fraudulently; but perhaps even a more 
potent influence is in the closer supervision which can be given to the workman 
by those in authority under the co-operative mode of work. Instead of sending 
out gangs of men into isolated orchards, the co-operative associations are gathering 
the fruit into packing houses and having the work done under the supervision of 
competent and responsible men." 


That the central packing house method is the best one is thus readily seen. 
For, owing to employment of experienced packers, and the close supervision of all 
the packing operations, a much better and a more uniform pack is usually obtained. 
The cost, too, of packing is considerably reduced tlirongh division of labor and 
handy equipment. 

Another point in favor of the central packing house is that carload lots can 
be made up more easily and with greater economy, especially if the packing house 
is built alongside a railroad, as it should be. Fruit can then be loaded directly 
from the packing house into cars at a great saving in cost. 


7' 


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fruit 


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Fruit. 


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[75 
% ^ox l,ccmlrcr 


t>*§r 

Colli 


Tit)r 


^ir>r 


Pk,r 


PifT 


f^tlT 


r'r 


I and 

I 

I Sox-nrAhirtq ^oom. 


w 


(c; 


1 


^ ^^' . .^--7'.^ 

Fig. 3. Ground plan of a Packing House, 40' x 60'. 

Lastly, the fruit can be kept under far better conditions of storage until 
shipment than are possible by the grower. 

Against the central packing house method, it may be said that ordinarily the 
fruit is subjected to more handling than where it is packed in the orchard. Also 
when packing in the orchard the grower can personally see that the fruit which 
he thought would pack largely No. 1 is really nearly all No. 2. Thus he is pre- 
vented from kicking and further taught to grow a higher grade of fruit. 

However, the many evident advantages serve to more than coun'terbalance 
these two disadvantages. Also if the fruit is handled carefully at all times, as it 
should be, there will be little, if any, extra bruising of the fruit resulting from 
the extra handling necessary in the central packing house method. And if the 
growers are progressive, the second disadvantage will carry little weight. 

Grading. 
Without good, even grading, rapid box-packing is impossible. To do good 
work and do it rapidly, the packer must have before him an even run of apples in 
point of size and quality. In fact, packing, simplified, is simply grading and 
sizing, then placing the fruit in the box so that it fits systematically and snugly. 
Unless the fruit is sized properly, it cannot be made to fit systematically. It is 


6 

« 

essential that a man be able to size an apple properly, else he will never make a 
packer. 

Eegardiug the best time to grade, some prefer to do part or most of it in the ' 
orchard as the fruit is picked, while others prefer to do it all in the packing house. 
The latter method is probably the better, as it entails less handling of the fruit. 
The apples can be graded directly on to the packing tables. For this same reason, 
grading in the packing house is probably more economical. 

In grading, remove all culls, that is, fruit with broken skins, worm holes, and 
other bad blemishes, and at the same time grade to color. 

As yet, it would hardly pay in Ontario to adopt the complicated system of 
assorting to sizes used in various sections of the Northwest States. Undoubtedly, 
it would be less difficult for packers, especially inexperienced ones, to pack properly 
if all the apples were assorted and graded beforehand. And it may also be pre- 
sumed that a sorter, having only the one thing to perform, might be able to do it 
better and quicker than the packer, who would have to pack the apples at the same 
time. However, the sizing need not be carried to extremes. 

If the packers are required to do the grading as they pack, much better work 
can be done if they have a large amount of fruit to pick from. In packing, this 
would mean a modification of the bench system or else the adoption of tables. Of 
the two, the bench method is to be preferred here, as there will be less handling 
over of the fruit; but the packers must be expert. 

Grading Machines. 

The need for mechanical help to get apples perfectly graded as to size has 
brought out many inventions which are distinct aids. The fruit is automatically 
sized and delivered to the packing table. However, these machines appear to have 
one fault in common ; tender varieties of apples are very often bruised to some 
extent. Also the mechanical graders cannot of course be made so as to grade for 
color and freedom from blemishes. It therefore becomes necessary to grade the 
fruit for these qualities before using the machine, or else have the packer do it. 

Another objection to the grading machine is that they grade the fruit almost 
too uniformly, and the apples being all of one size the packer finds difficulty in 
securing the proper bulge. It then becomes necessary to use two or possibly three 
of the grades as sized by the machine. 

For the small grower the price of a good machine is probably out of reason. The 
proper place for a grading machine is in a packing house where large quantities of 
the harder varieties of apples are being packed. 

Wiping. 

Regarding the wiping of apples there has been more or less discussion. The 
advent of the codling moth has made spraying imperative, and it is this spray that 
is chiefly objectionable. But, by many, the advisability of wiping has been seri- 
ously questioned, as the natural bloom on the fruit undoubtedly aids in keeping 
quality. On the other hand, packers of fancy fruit can show good reasons why all 
spraying efi'ects, etc., should be removed, for it must be admitted that an apple, 
after being wiped, presents a better appearance, to the average buyer at least, than 
6ne that has not been wiped. 

The expense is small and the wiping is easily done if the fruit is wiped imme- 
diately after being picked. Some varieties of apples, if allowed to stand for any 


length of time after being picked, are very difficult to wipe, as a sweat or oil gathers 
on the surface of the fruit. 

In wiping an apple it should not be rubbed hard. The object is not to polish 
the apple, but simply to remove what dust there may be, and more particularly the 
dabs of spray which a great many people are afraid of on account of their poisonous 
nature. However, an analysis of the quantity of spray on an apple has shown that 
it would take the spray from 600 apples to make a minimum dose of poison danger- 
ous to a human being. 

A pair of cheap cotton gloves is much superior to a rag for wiping, as the 
operation is not only more quickly performed, but the hands do not become numb 
from handling the cold fruit. "Wiping and grading may be conveniently done at 
the same time. 

Stemming. 

To prevent the stem of the apple being bent over by the top and bottom of the 
box and puncturing the fruit, stemming is practised. to some extent. Part of the 
stem is simply removed by small pincers especially made for the purpose. It is 
questionable whether stemming is practical in commercial box-packing. In 
barrel packing, where only a small percentage of the apples have to be stemmed, 
namely, the face layer, it is quite possibly an economic operation. With boxes, 
however, two layers, the top and the bottom, or half the apples in the box, are 
stemmed. For exhibition fruit this may be permissable, but there seems to be a 
fairly general impression in Ontario that all box-packed fruit should be stemmed. 
It would be far more economical to pack those varieties of apples that require 
stemming calyx-end up or on their side, for stemming must add considerably to 
the cost of packing. A good packer will pack half a box in the time required to 
stem the fruit for the top and bottom layers of a box. Thus where he would pack 
a box and a half when not stemming, he would only pack a box if he were required 
to stem the fruit. This means an increase of practically one-third in the cost of 
packing, which is far too big an expense to overlook. Of course if an extra price 
can be secured for stemmed fruit, well and good, but the way markets are tending 
now, the cost of production has to be decreased rather than increased in order to 
meet their demands. 

Wrapped fruit needs no stemming, as the wrappers prevent any 
puncturing by the stems. The apples give more when the pressure of the lid is 
brought to bear, tending to obviate any danger. Furthermore, since the fruit is 
wrapped, it matters very little whether the fruit is packed stem-end up, calyx-end 
up, or on its side. In varieties of apples, therefore, in which puncturing is to be 
expected, the top and bottom layers may be packed calyx-end up or on their cheeks. 
There is no serioits objection to pacHng apples on their sides even when univrapped, 
and there certainly is no serious objection to packing tvrapped fruit so. It is better 
however, to pack the apples on their ends whenever possible and use the side pack 
only when necessary. 

Packing Tables and Benches. 

Packing on benches instead of tables is gaining in favor in some districts of 
the West. The packer stands in front of a sloping bench on which are placed four 
or five apple boxes on his left-hand side and an orchard box of ungraded fruit on 
his right. Taking the apples as they come he packs them into their proper box, 
making four or five sizes. Over, or undersized fruit is put in boxes placed con veni- 


ently near. Culls are run down to a box on the floor. With expert packers who can 
size the apples at a glance this system is very good, as the fruit receives a minimum 
of handling and hence of bruising. However, for the beginner, and for a poor run 
of fruit, the table is preferable, as only one size is packed at a time and there is a 
larger quantity of apples to select from. 

To make a convenient packing table four uprights of two-by-four material 
three feet long, are taken. These four legs are joined with one-by-six lumber, 
making the table about three feet wide and four feet long. Care should be taken 
to haA^e the legs well braced. The top is then covered with strong burlap, which is 
allowed to hang rather loosely. The legs are bevelled off where they stick up 
through the burlap so as to leave no sharp edges to bruise the fruit. With this 
same idea in mind rubber hose is usually nailed around the edge of the table. 
Two of the diagonally opposite one-by-six sides are allowed to project a foot or so 
beyond the edge of the table so as to serve as a shelf on which to rest one end of the 
box while it is being packed. Another board is projected from underneath in such 
a way as to serve as a support for the other end of the box. 


Fig. 4. Packing Table. 


The height of the tables suggested above is only relative, the point being to 
have the height suit the packer. Back bending should be avoided. A height of 
about three feet is generally found to be about right. 

The surface area of the table should not, as a rule, be greater than three feet 
by four feet, as anything larger will not allow two packers to reach all points of it 
without unnecessary stretching. Larger tables may be used if there are four 
packers to a table, but as a general rule their use is to be avoided. There is too 
much fruit in one pile, and furthermore, two packers at one table will work to 
better advantage than will four. 


9 

Materials foe Packing. 

Boxes. The first item in a perfect pack is a clean box. Clean white material 
should be bought to start with, and the boxes never used for any other purpose 
than packing. The best available material for boxes is spruce, being whiter and 
neater in appearance than fir and so soft that it is not easily split when nailed. 

The proper thickness for box materials is as follows: Ends three-quarters of 
an inch, sides three-eights, and top and bottom one-quarter. Thinner ends are apt 
to split, thinner sides to bulge, resulting in bruising in transportation, and thicker 
tops not to bulge enough, hence crushing the fruit. For the same reasons sides 
should be of one solid piece and tops of two pieces. 

The use of rosin coated nails is to be strongly advocated, as they hold far 
better than the ordinary nail. Also being thinner, they are more easily driven 
in, and do not split the box lumber as readily as do other kinds. 

Size of Box. Two sizes of box, the Northwest Standard, 101/2 by 111;^ by 181/4 
inches, and the Northwest Special 10 by 11 by 20 inches, inside measurements, have 
been generally adopted throughout the western apple growing districts. The one used 
in Canada, the Northwest Special, will pack practically all sizes and shapes of apples 
likely to be found in Ontario. The deeper and wider box might be employed, but if 
all the packing can be done satisfactorily in one size of box it is, of course, better to 
use the one size altogether. It avoids confusion. Also, it is as easy to pack in the 
one box as in the other, it being simply a matter of which size of box the packer is 
used to. 

There are other factors relative to the size of box, however, which are probably 
of more importance than convenience in packing, Mr. R. M. Winslow, Provincial 
Horticulturist for British Columbia, in an article in the Canadian Horticulturist for 
September, 1913, writes : 

"The box at present in use has in its favor law, custom, and the favor of certain 
markets. The short box is commended to us by reason of its uniformity with other 
standard fruit packages, with consequent convenience in manufacturing, warehous- 
ing, and in loading oars. It is a more attractive package and possibly a cheaper 
one, and, above all, it has the favor of the coast and prairie provinces." 

Lining Paper. This serves to give the package a more finished appearance 
and also to keep dirt and odors away from the fruit. Lining paper is necessary 
only when the fruit is not wrapped, as wrapping more than accomplishes the same 
object. 

The size of the paper is approximately twenty by twenty-six inches. This 
allows for generous overlapping on both top and bottom of the box. In lining the 
box a sheet of paper is placed over one side, letting one end come a little past the 
centre of the bottom. Either hand is then placed flat on the bottom of the box 
on top of the sheet of paper and sufficient force applied to put a bulge in the 
bottom. This makes an opening or extended gap between the side and the bottom 
of the box. The paper is then pressed out with the side of the hand a little way 
in the opening so made. As the hand is raised this opening closes up and 
catches a pleat or fold in the lining paper, which is needed to keep the bulge of 
the packed and nailed box from bursting the paper. The other side of the box is 
lined similarly. 

The method of folding a pleat in the lining paper before putting in the box 
is a slow process, as it takes as long to put the lining in after it is folded as it does 
to put the paper in and catch the fold as described above. 


10 

Lining the ends of the boxes, if the lumber is dressed, is unnecessary, and 
therefore a needless expense. For exhibition purposes it is perhaps admissable to 
use it; otherwise never. 

Larjer Paper. This should be used only for exhibition fruit and that intended 
for long distance shipment, as to Great Britain. Its use should be confined to 
these purposes and perhaps also to the highest dessert trade. 

Styles of Packs. 

The style of packing has changed considerably in the last few years. The old 
style straight four-tier has practically given way to the diagonal pack for several 
reasons. With the straight pack each apple rests directly on the one below it and 
there is therefore great danger of bruising. With the diagonal pack, no one apple 
rests directly on another, but cushions in between the apples below, thus greatly 
reducing any chance of bruising. The diagonal pack lends itself to a much 
greater variety of sizes and shapes of apples. It is far easier to make a good com- 
mercial pack with the diagonal and more weight of apples is secured to the box 
as the apples fit more into the crevices, making less waste space. 

The third system of packing — the ofiE-set — is generally considered inferior to 
the diagonal. However, it is sometimes desirable to use it with inexperienced and 
unscrupulous packers, as a single apple of improper size will bring about a condition 
through the general pack and on the surface layer that cannot be covered up. Any 
defect in the pack is easily seen. With the diagonal system it is much easier to 
vary the size of the fruit in the bottom and centre layers without materially spoil- 
ing the appearance on top. Only on opening the box at its final destination will 
the poor work be discovered. On the other hand, when both systems are properly 
used, the diagonal is more to be desired for the reason that fewer of the apples 
come in the straight pack sizes. Again, in the off-set pack the spaces show at the 
sides, giving the box an unfilled appearance, whereas, in the diagonal, only small 
spaces occur, and these at the ends of the box. Another point against the off-set is 
that it contains from four to twelve apples less than the diagonal, making the box 
light in weight. 

Straight Pack. In this pack the rows run straight across the box and parallel 
to the sides. It includes all the three, four, and five tier apples. The straight 
pack is very neat in appearance, but, as stated before, it is rather severe on the fruit 
as each apple tends to press directly against surrounding apples rather than into 
the crevices or spaces. 

The apples are placed in the box in various ways, depending on the shape and 
variety, and whether the fruit is wrapped or not. Thus sometimes they are packed 
on their sides and sometimes flat. As a general rule it is better to have the top 
and bottom layers with stems towards the outside, if possible, in unwrapped fruit. 
In this way the apples do not tend to bruise so easily, as a greater bearing space is 
given for the lid. Even if they do bruise, the apples are not so badly disfigured 
for the retail trade where they are generally arranged calyx-end up. 

The straight pack is so simple, in theory at least, as to require very little ex- 
planation concerning the theory of packing. It is necessary to remember only one 
thing; the apples must fit snugly both across the box and lengthwise. In packing 
some varieties on their sides it will sometimes be found necessary to turn the end 
rows flat in order to make the apples fit tight. When it becomes necessary to do 
this, the ends of two layers at one end of the box and the ends of the other two 


11* 

\ 

at the other end of the box should be turned, otherwise one end will be too high 
and the other too low. 

Diagonal Pack. The most important style of pack, all things considered, is 
the diagonal, or half-tier pack as it is sometimes called. The term diagonal comes 
from the fact that the rows do not run straight across the box, but go at an angle. 
The diagonal includes the commonly called 2-1, 2-2 and 3-2 packs. 

In beginning the 2-2 pack an apple is placed in the left-hand lower corner of 
the box and another midway between the cheek of the first apple and the right- 
hand side of the box. Two spaces of equal size will then be left. Into these spaces 
two apples are placed, it being understood, of course, that the apples are too large 
to fit four across the box. The spaces left by the last two apples placed are then 
filled, and so on until the layer is completed. The second layer is packed in the 
same manner, except that it is started in the right-hand corner for the half-tier 
packs. This throws the apples of the second layer into the pockets formed by the 
first layer. When completed, the third layer will be directly over the first 'layer 
and the fourth over the second. 


2-2, 6-6 diagonal; 4 layers — 96 apples. 


2-2, 5-6 diagonal; 4 layers — 88 apples. 


The 3-2 pack is essentially the same as the 2-2, except that it is started with 
three apples — one in each lower corner and the third in the centre of the space left. 
This leaves two spaces, one on either side of the centre apple, into which two apples 
are placed, and thus three and two until the layer is completed. The second layer 
is started with two apples in the pockets formed by the first layer, three in the 
next row, and thus two and three throughout. When the box is completed the 
third and fifth layers will be directly over the first, and the fourth over the second. 


'12 


f.*?. 


i (. (♦ {' ^* k^ \' 


^ 


■-d 


ft 

ft 


02 

O 
>. 

03 


a 

o 


to 
tu 

ft 
ft 

o 
o 


o 


CO 


14 


Offset Pack. With ordinary sized apples the offset is started by placing three 
apples firmly together cheek to cheek in the lower end with the first of the three in 
this row against the left-hand side of the box. The space left then is all on one 
side of the box. In this space the first apple of the three constituting the second 
row is placed. When the remaining two are in, the space will be on the left-hand 
side. The layer is thus completed, the space alternating from side to side of the 
box. The second layer is started in the right-hand lower corner by throwing the 
apples into the crevices formed by the apples of the first layer. In the completed 
box the alternate layers will be directly over one another. 


For this pack, as in the diagonal 2-2, it is necessary to have apples too large 
to fit four across the box. Similarly the 3-2 diagonal requires apples too large 
to go five across. 


15 


HoW TO 3TAV?T A h^O W To fiTAf^T A Mo W TO PL AC B 

iagomaL ^-2 Pack OagomAL 2-2 Pa:ic |^"^ano Z""* Lave res 


S LAYERS 


ISZI APPLES) 


4 LAYEeS 
'S & APPLE5 


16 

But, whatever the style of packing used — whether it be straight, diagonal, or 
offset — the essentials of a good pack — firmness, regularity, correct bulge, smooth- 
ness, and finish, as already discussed — should be kept constantly in mind by the 
packer. And the packer must bear in mind that packing is placing fruit of the same 
size solidly into boxes in such a manner as to insure uniformity of appearance, neat- 
ness, and protection from bruising. The style of pack is a secondary consideration. 
That is, if a certain size or shape of apple packs better offset than diagonal, then the 
offeet is the pack to use. This applies also to the much discussed riff-raff pack. 

Nailixg Peesses. 

A box after being packed is taken to the nailing press. There are several good 
makes of nailing presses, but the best ones are those which press only on the ends 
of the lids, and which hold cleats and tops firmly in place until nailed. After 
being nailed up the boxes should always be laid on their side, as the sides, having 
no bulge, do not bruise the fruit. 


Fig. 5. A Goad Type of Box Press. 


Tables' of Packs. 

In the following tables an endeavor has been made to tabulate certain useful 
information on the more commonly used packs. The make-up of the various packs 
is clearly indicated. 


17 


TABLE 1.— Straight Packs. 


No. Apples 
in Box. 


Tier Designa- 
tion. 


Actual 
Tiers 


Position of 
Apple. 


Apples in Top Tier 


45 


3 tier 


3 


side 


3-5 equals 15 


54 


3 tier 


3 


side 


3-6 ' ' 18 


68 


3 tier 


3 


side 


3-7 ' ' 21 


96 


4 tier 


4 


side 


4-6 ' ' 24 


112 


4 tier 


4 


side 


4-7 ' ' 28 


128 


4 tier 


4 


side 


4-8 ' ' 32 


144 


4 tier 


4 


side 


4-9 ' • 36 


200 


5 tier 


5 


end 


5-8 ' ' 40 


225 


5 tier 


5 


end 


5-9 ' • 45 


TABLE 2.— Offset Packs. 


No. of Apples 
in Box 


Tier 
Designation 


Actual Tiers 


Position of 
Apple 


Apples in Top Tier 


84 

96 

160 

180 


3i tier 
4 ' ' 

4i " 
H " 


4 
4 
5 
5 


side 

( i 
( < 
( ( 


3-3, 4-3 equals 21 
3-3, 4-4 " 24 
4-4, 4-4 " 32 
4-4, 5-4 " 36 


TABLE 3.— Diagonal Packs. 


No. of Apples 
in Box 


Tier 

Designation 


Actual Tiers 


Position of 
Apple 


Apples in Top Tier 


36 


3 tier 


3 


side 


2-1, 4-4 equals 12 


41 


3^ ' 


3 


1 < 


2-1 


5-4 ' 


' 14 


45 


3 ' 


3 


< ( 


2-1 


5-5 ' 


' 15 


50 


3 ' 


3 


( c 


2-1 


6-5 ' 


• 17 


48 


3i ' 


4 


end 


2-2 


3-3 ' 


• 12 


56 


3i ' 


4 


( ( 


2-2 


3-4 • 


• 14 


64 


3^ ' 


4 


( ( 


2-2 


4-4 ' 


• 16 


72 


3i ' 


4 


( c 


2-2 


4-5 ' 


' 18 


80 


3i ' 


4 


. ( ( 


2-2 


5-5 ' 


' 20 


88 


3J ' 


4 


< ( 


2-2 


5-6 ' 


' 22 


96 


4 ' 


4 


side' usually 


2-2 


6-6 ' 


• 24 


104 


4 ' 


4 


( ( ( ( 


2-2 


6-7 ' 


' 26 


112 


4 ' 


4 


( ( t ( 


2-2 


7-7 ' 


' 28 


120 


4 ' 


4 


side 


2-2 


7-8 ' 


' 30 


128 


4 ' 


4 


i I 


2-2 


8-8 * 


' 32 


70 


4 ' 


4 


end 


3-2 


4-3 • 


' 18 


80 


4 ' 


4 


t ( 


3-2 


4-4 • 


• 20 


113 


4 ' 


5 


i c 


3-2 


5-4 -' 


' 23 


125 


4 • 


5 


t < 


3-2 


5-5 ' 


' 25 


138 


4^ ' 


5 


1 ( 


3-2 


6-5 ' 


• 28 


150 


4i ' 


5 


c t 


3-2 


, 6-6 • 


' 30 


163 


4i • 


5 


< 1 


3-2 


7-6 • 


' 33 


175 


4i ' 


5 


« ( 


3-2 


7-7 ' 


' 35 


188 


5 • 


5 


< < 


3-2 


8-7 ' 


• 38 


200 


5 ' 


5 


i « 


3-2 


8-8 ' 


' 40 


213 


5 • 


5 


t i 


3-2 


9-8 * 


' 43 


225 


5 • 


5 


« • 


3-2 


9-9 ' 


• 45 


238 


5 ' 


5 


< < 


3-2 


10-9 * 


• 48 


250 


5 ' 


5 


t t 


3-2 


10-10 • 


' 50 


140 


5 ' 


5 


t t 


4-3 


4-4 ' 


• 28 


18 


Bulge. 

In the straight pack, before the lid is nailed on, the apples at either end of 
the box should come up a little better than flush with the top. With the diagonal 
the ends should be a little higher— about one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch 
in all. Then from either end there should be a gradual bulge amounting at the 
middle of the box to about one and one-half inches. Thus, when the lid is nailed on, 
there will be a bulge of practically three-fourths of an inch each on top and bottom. 
Less bulge is desirable with the straight packs on account of their unyielding 
nature. There is no settling of the apples into the crevices as in the diagonal. 

The proper bulge is obtained, in the straight pack especially, by selecting 
apples that are a trifle smaller for the ends. With apples that are being packed on 
the cheek it sometimes becomes necessary to turn the end rows flat to secure the 


Fig. 6. Showing the proper bulge on hox nailed and ready for 

shipment. 

desired bulge, and, at the same time, have the ends low enough. This method of 
turning has been previously discussed under the heading of " Straight Pack," so 
needs no further explanation here. 

In the diagonal pack the small spaces left at the ends of each layer aid materi- 
ally in securing the proper bulge. This, and pulling the apples tighter towards the 
centre of each layer, is sufficient to give the necessary bulge in wrapped fruit. By 
packing closer in the centre you close the pockets between the apples more, and the 
next layer will not go so deep down in, and therefore builds up the centre. The 
ends being left a little looser, the pockets are opened a little more and the apples 
■drop in further and therefore do not build up so high. Practice alone will give the 
■knowledge of just how tight to pack the centre or how loose to pack the ends. 


19 

When unwrapped, of course this difierence in firmness cannot be made and 
the packer has therefore to take advantage of the small irregularities and differ- 
ences in the sizes of the apples. This diiference in size must not be so great as to 
attract attention. It is essential to begin the bulge with the first layer of fruit and 
to pack each layer with the same end in view. 

In finding a pack too flat it is usually no use to repack the top layer, as the 
trouble probably extends right through the box. The bulge should form an un- 
broken arch when the box is finished, so that the pressure of the lid will be equally 
distributed over the fruit. A bulge high in the centre and dropping off to the 
sides will not be held firmly in place by the cover, causing the whole pack to 
become loose. 

Packing A pples Before and After Storing, 

There are several points in favor of packing apples after storing, the principal 
ones being as follows: 

1. Packers can be given employment for a longer period of time. The fruit 
need only be packed as it is required for the market. 

2. Unless the fruit can be stored at a sufficiently low temperature, diseases 
which cannot be noticed at the time of storing are likely to develop. If the fruit is 
packed before storing, it will go on the market in this state, while if packed only 
as it is needed all fruit showing any rot or scab can be graded out. 

3. There is a much better circulation of air, as orchard boxes are especially 
constructed to this end. Fungous diseases will spread less rapidly in consequence, 
other conditions being equal. 

In favor of packing beftre storing, it may be said that much less room is 
required to store the fruit. This is an important consideration where space is 
limited. Further, any sudden demand or rise in prices can be more promptly 
attended to. 

If the fruit is wrapped there are of course several other advantages of packing 
before storing. The spread of fungous diseases is prevented ; the fruit keeps longer ; 
and it is protected from changes in temperature. 


WRA PPING. 
Wrapped vs. Unwrapped. 

The question of wrapping fruit is attracting more and more attention each 
year from eastern growers, and rightly so. In the Western States and British 
Columbia practically all No. 1 stock is wrapped. Conditions, however, are some- 
what different in Ontario, so that wrapping at present should be governed by the 
variety of apple and the market. Western growers are building up a high class 
market with this class of product. It is doubtful if it would pay the ordinary 
grower who has no special market to wrap his fruit at present. 

Briefly, the advantages of wrapping are as follows: 

1. It improves the keeping quality by preventing disease spreading from fruit 
to fruit. 


20 

2. Apart from the control of disease, it improves the keeping quality, in that 
wrapped fruit may be firm and in prime condition several weeks after unwrapped 
fruit has become mealy from over-ripeness. It retards the ripening process by 
retarding evaporation, 

3. It serves as a cushion to the fruit, especially valuable in the case of easily 
bruised varieties, prolonging its life and good appearance. 

4. It protects the fruit from sudden changes of temperature and absorbs 

surplus moisture. 

5. It makes an elastic but firm pack, much less liable to shift than unwrapped 

fruit. 

6. It gives a more finished appearance to the package. It presumes a high 
grade product, so finding a readier sale and a higher price. 

7. Once the knack of wrapping has been acquired, it is much easier in almost 
every way to pack wrapped fruit. Any packer skilled in both methods will testify 

to this. 

The main disadvantage of wrapping is that, in cases where the fruit is not 
cooled at the time of packing, the wrapper prevents rapid cooling. There may be 
a difference in temperature of 10° F. at the end of one day between a box of un- 
wrapped fruit and one wrapped. Wrapping, however, has so many advantages that 
this one disadvantage may be practically disregarded. ^, 

It seems to be the general opinion of those unfamiliar with wrapping that it 
adds to the cost of packing. As a matter of fact, the cost of paper for wrapping is 
almost saved by the weight of fruit displaced by the paper. Further, experienced 
packers can do as quick or even quicker work wrapping than without. Again, it is 
easier to secure the proper bulge with wrapping, as the firmness of the pack can 
be varied considerably from the middle of the box to the ends without injuring the 
pack in any way. The principle of this has already been dealt with in "Bulge." 
Again, as already noted, there is more latitude in the style of pack. 

In wrapped fruit the top of the box should be packed last, while in unwrapped 
fruit the top is packed first. Packing the top of wrapped fruit first is a poor method 
and should be discouraged. 

Only No. 1 fruit and possibly No. 2 of the winter varieties should be wrapped. 
All fruit intended for distant markets as Great Britain should be wrapped, unless 
unwrapped fruit is preferred, as the fruit carries much better. Wrap, too, for mar- 
kets where there is competition with wrapped fruit from other districts. 


Materials fok Wrapping. 

Wrapping Paper. The kind most commonly used in the west is called the 
"Duplex," from the fact that one side is calendered and the other rough. This 
latter side is turned to the fruit as it more readily absorbs any surplus moisture. 
A white color is decidedly preferable. It looks cleaner and neater than any other. 

Using paper with the name or trade mark of the grower or association is an 
excellent way of advertising. It is not necessary to wrap all the apples in such 
paper, but if the outside layers are done and the trade mark is neat, it certainly 
adds much to the attractiveness of the package. 

The paper is cut into several sizes to correspond with the different sizes of 
apples. The following figures give a good idea of the sizes most commonly in use : 


21 

8 by 8 inches for 5-tier and the smaller 4i/^-tier fruit. 
8 by 9 and 8 by 10 inches for 4i/^-tier. 
10 by 10 inches for 4-tier and the smaller S^/^-tier. 
10 by 12 inches for very large fruit. 

These sizes should be adhered to fairly closely, as fruit packed with too large a 
size of paper gives a box light in weight, and also gives the consumer the im- 
pression that the price of paper is too high. Using paper too small is equally 
objectionable in that a great deal of the advantage of wrai3ping is lost. It also 
increases the labor of wrapping to a considerable extent. 

Unstencilled Duplex, size 10 by 10 inches, costs about 12 cents per ream f.o.b. 
shipping point, in quantities less than five tons. For larger' quantities the price 
is correspondingly less. Approximately a quarter of a ream (135 sheets of paper) 
is required to pack a box. The cost per box is therefore three cents. 

Tray for Wrapping Paper. For convenience and speed in wrapping, a tray for 
holding the paper is very necessary. They are made so that they can be placed on 
the side of the packing box. 

To make one, an apple box end is usually taken and strips which project up 
over the edge about two inches are nailed on three sides of it. On the under 
side a three cornered block is nailed so that one side of it is even with the open side 
of the tray. This forms a bracket or brace for supporting the tray when in 
position on the box. 

Two long nails are then driven into the open side of the tray, leaving 
about three-fourths of an inch of their length out. The heads are then cut o3 
and the nails bent down over a piece of iron or hardwood a trifle thicker than 
the side of the box. This forms hooks for hanging the tray onto the packing box. 

Fig. 4, page 8, shows a paper tray in position on a box. 

Method of Wrapping. 

Practically no time is lost in the operation of wrapping, as a skilled packer 
picks up the apples with his right hand while he reaches for the paper with his 
left. To aid in picking up the paper it is advisable to use a stole on the thumb or 
first finger. The apple is placed in the centre of the paper in the left hand with 
the side or end of the fruit down which is to be packed uppermost. The wrap is 
then made with both hands by a couple of quick half-turns of the wrist, the last of 
which brings the smooth surface up and the bunch of paper on the bottom. It is 
practically impossible to give in writing, instructions as to how to wrap an apple. 
The essential point is to have a smooth w^rap, made with as few motions of the 
hands as possible. An expert packer should wrap and pack fifty to one hundred 
boxes a day, depending upon the size and grading of the fruit. 


22 


MASKING OF PACKAGES. 

MarJcs Required. The Canadian Fruit Marks Act prescribes that all closed 
packages must be marked, first, with the name and address of the owner of the 
fruit at the time of packing; second, with the variety of fruit; and third, its 
grade. One of the four grade marks must be used, namely, Fancy, No. 1, No. 2, 
or No. 3. Any one of these grade marks may be used together with any other 
designation that is not contradictory to or more prominently marked than the 
prescribed grade mark. 

The Act also provides that all packages, whether open or closed, must be so 
packed that the face or shown surface fairly represents the grade of fruit all the 
way through the package. 

Three grades are defined. The Fancy grade consists of fruit practically per- 
fect. The No.' 1 grade allows 10 per cent, of imperfect fruit; 90 per cent, must 
be practically free from serious defects and of good size and color. No. 2 grade 
consists of 80 per cent, free from defects that would cause material waste; and all 
apples whether defective or not must be nearly medium in size for the variety. 
No. 3 grade is not defined. 

The workman who packs and marks fruit contrary to the provisions of the 
Act is subject to a fine of not less than $5 and not more than $J:0. Anyone chang- 
ing the marks upon packages after inspection is subject to a fine of not less than 
$40 nor more than $500. 

At present an agitation is being started in Canada to adopt the same grade 
marks as are used by the Western States. Their grade marks lead Canadian 
buyers especially to think that American fruit is better, compared to Canadian 
fruit, than it really is. The generally adopted American grade terms are Extra 
Fancy, Fancy, and C, corresponding with the Canadian Fancy, No.l, and No. 2. 
Thus it will be seen that Extra Fancy on American boxes is the same grade of 
fruit as our Fancy. Similarly our No. 1 grade corresponds with their Fancy 
grade. Their Fancy grade then is a grade lower than our Fancy marked fruit. 
The disadvantage which Canadian growers have been at in competitive markets, 
such as the Canadian Northwest, is therefore very evident. 

Tier vs. Numbee of Apples. 

The practice of stamping the exact number of apples contained in the box 
rather than the tier is rapidly gaining in favor throughout the West. Marking 
the number has several important advantages, the chief of which are: 

1. The adoption of the diagonal pack has made the old description of apples 
by tiers inaccurate. For example, apples which in a straight pack would be 4-tier, 
pack five actual tiers in the diagonal. Yet they are marked 4-tier. 

2. The retailer sells by number and naturally prefers to buy in the same way 
as he can tell at a glance what price he can profitably pay for a box. The con- 
sumer also appreciates the information given by the number. 

3. The designation by tiers is as misleading to the grower as to the consumer. 
Boxes are stamped more according to the size of the apple rather than the actual 
number of tiers contained. They are stamped 4-tier and 4i/2-tier when they actu- 
ally contain 5-tiers, and 5-tier when they actually do not have five tiers. Thus 
only an expert is able to distinguish packs in the terms of tiers. 


23 

In marking packages the Dominion Government recommends the following 
system : — 


In the Okanagan the custom is to mark the boxes as below. In this system of 
marking any complaint can be traced directly to the packer. It is therefore to be 
recommended strongly. 


Va ri( til 


y 


Sr^f/t 


/^r/- or 


J5> rd n c/ 


Pjt/(rrS /Vufrr^rr 


Sf^u <r 4 /i-o. 


Lithographing. A neat attractive lithograph placed on the end of the box 
adds very much to its appearance, and often aids materially in finding a market. 
A cheap, gaudy label detracts from, rather than adds, to the appearance. 

A lithograph should contain the grower's or association's name, the name of 
the locality, and the Province. The other end of the box will then have marked 
on it the variety, grade, and number of the apples, and the packer's number. 


GENERAL HINTS TO PACKEES. ' ^ 

1. Use only clean boxes neatly made. 

2. Use only one size box — the 20 by 11 by 10. 

3. The square and offset packs are defective, and should be avoided whenever 
possible. 

4. Keep the pack, if anything, above the requirements of the "Fruit Marks 
Act" 


24 

5. When wrapping use the proper sized paper for the apples. 

6. Clear the packing table several times during the day so that no fruit be- 
comes bruised from continually "pawing over." 

7. Avoid turning the stem of one apple to the cheek of another, for the stem will 
puncture the cheek and destroy the apple, especially for storage. 

• 8. The pack must be firm, of proper bulge, and correct alignment. 

9. The pack must be attractive. The secret of putting up an attractive pack 
is to select apples of practically the same size for each box. Any variation in size 
to secure bulge with unwrapped fruit must be unnoticeable to ordinary inspection. 

10. Mark the number of apples on the box, rather than the tier. 

11. Consistently try to improve the pack. 

13. Eemember that the style of pack is not so important as having the fruit 
packed well. That is, a uniform, neat and attractive pack with the least amount of 
bruising possible. Vary the style of pack to suit the shape and size of apple, so that 
the apple may always be shown to advantage in a good commercial pack. Though 
packs such as the offset and the riff-raff are defective and should be avoided, yet it 
becomes almost absolutely necessary to use them at times, as certain sizes and shapes 
of apples will not pack to advantage any other way. 


LIST OF BULLETINS 


Published by the Ontabio Department of Aqbicultube, Tobonto. 


Serial 
No. Date. 

170 Mar. 1909 

171 April 1909 


172 


May 


1909 


173 


Oct. 


1909 


174 


Dec. 


1909 


175 


Dec. 


1909 


176 


Dec. 


1909 


177 


Dec. 


1909 


178 


Dec. 


1909 


179 


Feb. 


1910 


180 


April 


1910 


181 


June 


1910 


182 


July 


1910 


183 


Aug. 


1910 


184 


Nov. 


1910 


185 


Nov. 


1910 


186 


Dec. 


1910 


187 


Jan. 


1911 


188 


April 


1911 


189 


May 


1911 


190 


May 


1911 


191 


June 


1911 


192 


July 


1911 


193 


Nov. 


1911 


194 


Dec. 


1911 


195 


Jan. 


1912 


196 


Jan. 


1912 


197 


Feb. 


1912 


198 


Feb. 


1912 


199 


Feb. 


1912 


200 


April 


1912 


201 


May 


1912 


202 


May 


1912 


203 


May 


1912 


204 


June 


1912 


205 


Sept. 


1912 


206 


Nov. 


1912 


207 


Dec. 


1912 


208 


Jan. 


1913 


209 March 1913 

210 March 1913 

211 March 1913 

212 April 1913 

213 April 1913 

214 May 1913 

215 Aug. 1913 


216 Oct. 


1913 


Title. Author. 

Mitchell-Walker Test Bottle | "^ q Walker." 

Insects Affecting Vegetables C. J. S. Bethune. 

f J E Howitt 

Fungus Diseases Affecting Vegetables .... i j* w. Eastham. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 143 Revised) . . . Dairy School. 

Birds of Ontario C. W. Nash. 

Farm Underdrainage: Does it Pay ? W. H. Day. 

Farm Drainage Operations W. H. Day. 

Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince 

Trees ^- H. Jones. 

^ . r, / ^ -rxT V. f H. L. Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash | l Caesar. 

Character and Treatment of Swamp or f W. P. Gamble. 

Muck Soils I A. E. Slater. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters 

(No. 147 revised) Fruit Branch 

Flour and Breadmaking { ^ A^^Purdy. 

The Teeth and Their Care Ont. Dental Society. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Notes on Cheddar Cheese-making Dairy Branch. 

Uses of Vegetables, Fruits and Honey 

Little Peach Disease L. Caesar. 

Children: Care and Training J. J. Kelso. 

The Codling Moth L. Caesar. 

Weeds of Ontario (No. 128 revised) J. E. Howitt. 

Farm Poultry (151 revised) W. R. Graham. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Bee-keeping in Ontario Fruit Branch. 

Agricultural Co-operation S. E. Todd. 

Tuberculosis of Fowls S. F. Edwards. 

Apple Orcharding Fruit Branch. 

Insecticides and Fungicides. (No. 154 revised { ^ l.^ Fuhner. 

Tomatoes - A. G. Turney. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash L. Caesar. 

Onions A. McMeans. 

Fruit Juices L. Meunler. 

Peach Diseases F. M. Clement. 

Peach Growing in Ontario L. Caesar. 

Grape Growing in Niagara Peninsula T. B. Revett. 

Cabbage and Cauliflower A. McMeans. 

Decay of the Teeth Ont. Dental Society. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . C 

Part I. Cheese-making and Butter-making J Staff of Dairy School. 

Dairy School Bulletin (No. 172 revised) . . 1 Dairy School. 

Part II. Dairying on the Farm [ 

Ice Cold Storage on the Farm R. R. Graham. 

Farm Poultry and Egg Marketing Conditions f J. H. Hare. 

in Ontario County \ T. A. Benson. 

Farm Forestry (No. 155 revised) E. J. Zavltz. 

Strawberry Culture and The Red Raspberry. F. M. Clement. 

Fruits Recommended for Ontario Planters.. Fruit Branch 

(No. 179 revised.) 
Orchard Surveys in Dundas, Stormont and 

Glengarry F. S. Reeves. 

Bee Diseases in Ontario Morley Pettit. 

Sheep Raising in Ontario: Does it Pay? Live Stock Branch. 

Demonstration Lectures in Domestic Science, 

Sewing and Nursing Institutes Branch. 

Box Packing of Apples E. F. Palmer. 


Ontario Department of Agriculture 


ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


BULLETIN 217 

A Revised Edition of No. 189 


Farm Poultry 

With the Results of Some Experi- 
ments in Poultry Houses and 
Fattening Chickens 

By 
W. R. GRAHAM, B.S.A. 

Professor of Poultry Husbandry 
And 

A. c. Mcculloch, b.s.a. 

Demonstrator in Poultry Husbandry 


Printed by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty. 
TORONTO, ONT., December, 1913. 


BULLETIN 217 


[DECEMBER, 1913 

Ontario Department of Agriculture 

ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 


Farm Poultry with the Results of Some 

Experiments in Poultry Houses 

and Fattening Chickens. 

By W. E. Graham 'and A. C. McCulloch. 

This bulletin is intended to give information to farmers and others on general 
matters pertaining to the keeping of poultry. 

It also contains the results of a few experiments which have been conducted at 
this institution on various matters pertaining to poultry. 


CONSTEUCTIOX OF POULTRY HOUSES. 

We find poultry thriving and yielding good returns in so many different styles 
of houses, that it is very 'difficult to lay down any hard and fast rules. The 
tendency at the present time is towards cheaper houses, with better ventilation. 
The hot-house style of housing poultry during the winter has not been satisfactory, 
many houses being damp, and the air in them anything but agreeable. Disease has 
been quite common; and results in many cases have been disappointing. 


No. 4. No. 3. No. 2. No. 1. 

Fig. 1. Different Styles of Poultry Houses Suitable for an Ordinary Farm. 


Every poultry house should be light; at least one-third of the south side should 
be of glass, or otherwise opened to the sun. It should face the south-east or south. 
The sun's rays are very beneficial to fowls, especially during the winter months. 

College Poultry Houses. 

For a number of years we have been trying various styles of house. The first 
houses constructed were well built, tight and warm. They were fitted with stoves 
or hot water pipes, so that the fowls could be kept at a comfortable temperature. 
This plan was not satisfactory ; mainly for the reasons that it was difficult to keep 
the fowls in good health, and furthermore the eggs were low in hatching power. 
The cost of heating was also considerable, in fact the entire equipment was too 
expensive to be successful as a business. 

It was noticed yearly that the surplus stock held in the cheap houses was 
much healthier than those fowls kept in the warm houses. During the past eight 
years we have been trying to evolve a house that could be cheaply constructed, that 
would keep the fowls in good health, and at the same time get a fair egg yield from 
the fowls so housed. 

Several years ago, four houses, representing different styles of popular poultry 
houses, were constructed. These houses were stocked with birds representing, as 
nearly as possible, the same strains of the breed. The breeds used were White 
Wyandottes and Buff Orpingtons, the one a rose combed breed, the other a single 
combed breed. 

The houses are of equal size as regards floor space. Each house is 34 feet long 
and 12 feet wide. The house is divided by a wire and board partition, making two 
pens each 12 feet square. The pens will accommodate from 20 to 25 birds each, 
or about 50 to the houses. Fig. 1 shows fairly well the appearance as regards 
windows, etc., of the house. The roosting quarters of each house are very similar 
in construction. A dropping-board is used which is constructed of matched 
dressed lumber. The board is placed at the back of the building, and is about three 
feet above the floor level. The dropping-board is three feet wide. The roosts are 
made of dressed 3x3 scantling, and are placed six inches above the dropping- 
board. A curtain is arranged to be let down during cold nights, as in No. 1 and 
JSTo. 2 houses. There is no curtain used in No. 3 or No. 4 houses. 

House No. 1 is made of matched boards which are dressed on one side. The 
front and ends of the house are single-ply. The back is sheeted on the inside, 
building paper being used under the boards so as to make the wall tight or free 
from draughts. The windows in this house slide back and forth, so that the 
ventilation can be adjusted to the weather conditions. The roo&ting quarters in 
this house have curtains which can be dropped on very cold nights. 

Trap-nests are used in all the houses, and are on the ground level. These 
take up some floor space that might be used for exercising the fowls were we using 
other styles of nests. 

The second house is what is known as the " Maine State " house. This house 
is practically open to the weather on the front or south side. There are canvas 
curtains which can be dropped as a protection against wind and snow on stormy 
days. On other days these canvas curtains are to be rolled up, and the fowls allowed 
to exercise in the fresh air. The ends of the house are single-ply matched lumber ; 


0> 

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a> 

GO 

3 
O 

w 

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Ci 

A 


d 

a 

bO 

u 

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— l-E^^f 


Fig. 3. Cross section of House No. 2, showing the curtains in position 

for the day, etc. 


Fig. 4. Cross section of House No. 4. 


the back wall of the house is matched lumber lined with paper, and is sheeted again 
on the inside. This is done in order to make a warm roosting coop, which ie pro- 
tected at night in front by canvas curtains. 

The third house is the warmest house of the four and is built of matched 
lumber and lined with paper. There is a dead air space between the inside and 
outside walls. The building is made as tight as possible, the windows, doors, etc., 
all being made to fit tightly. 

Many houses built on this plan are moist inside. To do away with the 
moisture we have a straw loft. The straw is placed on boards, which are from four 
to six inches apart. These boards are placed on a level with the roof or ceiling. 
The straw absorbs the moisture and keeps the house dry. 

The fourth house is one of the extremely airy ones, being made of boards that 
are dressed on one side and the cracks battened; about half of the front is open to 
the weather, but may be closed on stormy days by large doors. There is not any 
special protection for the roost, the chickens roosting in this house in exactly 
the same temperature as they worked in during the day. This house, needless to 
mention, is much cheaper than the other styles. 

The following record shows in a concise form the difference in the percentage 
of egg production in favor of the cold or fresh air house during the five years for 
the months of December, January, February and March, the first year beginning 
December, 1904-05, 76 per cent.; 1906, 8 per cent.; 1907, 11.8 per cent.; 1908, 15.6 
per cent.; 1909, 12.4 per cent. 


Fig. 5. 


The house with the cloth front and the one with the movable windows compare 
favorably with the cold house. There is probably not enough difference in the 
actual egg production to warrant a statement that either of these houses is very 
much inferior to the cold house. They are about three degrees warmer than the 
coldest house and about fifteen degrees colder than the warm house. 


CO 
••-I 


These figures must not be taken to mean that hens 
will lay better in a cold house than in a warm one, but 
that fresh air is essential to health, and health is a factor 
in egg production. When one tries to retain the animal 
heat of the body to maintain the heat of the house, one 
necessarily allows but little air circulation, hence the air 
becomes foul or stagnant, which is not healthful. 

The above results indicate that the free admission of 
fresh air is a very essential factor in house construction. 
House No. 3 in Fig. 1, which gave the poorest results 
for each of the five consecutive winters, was operated quite 
successfully the sixth and seventh winters by introducing 
more fresh air; that is to say, one-half of the windows 
were removed until about December 1st, and when these 
were put in, the openings (about one foot square), where 
the fowls go out into the yard at the north side were left 
entirely open. These except during mild days appear to 
supply sufficient air to keep the birds doing nicely. This 
statement is made as a means of helping any person who 
may have a similar house, and who wishes to continue 
using the same. 

Our experience is that all four houses, while fairly 
satisfactory, especially No. 4, are not all that may be 
desired, for the reason that they must be adjusted accord- 
ing to weather conditions — that is to say, on bright, sun- 
shiny days, the doors, movable windows, or cloth screens 
should be opened for nearly all the day, or, again, for but 
an hour, depending upon the sunshine and temperature. 

The slope or shanty roofs on houses Nos. 1 and 2 have 
not been as satisfactory as the pitched roofs on houses 
Nos. 3 and 4. The roofs on the latter houses are more 
durable and the houses themselves much cooler in summer, 
and furthermore, the straw lofts in these houses are very 
effectual in preventing dampness in the houses; no frost 
collects upon the walls or ceilings. 

We have tried several houses with curtain fronts, and 
we are pleased to say they work fairly well, when used in 
a house as in Figures 5 and 6, which is practically the 
same style of house as No. 4 in Figure 1, but these require' 
adjusting according to the weather, and if they are not 
kept brushed, the dust and dirt will gather to such an 
extent as to prevent free ventilation, so that they will not 
ventilate very well. Our experience has been that such 
cloth screens should be of the cheapest cotton; heavy cotton or duck scarcely 
ventilates at all. There is yet another objection to these cloth screens, in that 
the hens, especially the lighter breeds, become notionate about trying to lay or 
roost upon the screens. 

To the person who is breeding the tender varieties or those with large combs, 
some means must be taken to keep them fairly warm at night or their combs will 


1 X 


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• 1 

§ ' 1 


";5 

X 

5 


^ II 

^ 1 


5 


X 

"S. 


become badly frosted. The females of such breeds as Leghorns or Minorcas will 
stand a temperature considerably below zero without frosting their combs. 

The question naturally arises : can a house be constructed which is nearly self- 
operating, that will keep the birds in health, and at the same time ensure a fair 

egg yield. 

Open Eront Housa 


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Our experience has been that the fowls thrive best in low-down houses, espe- 
cially during the winter. We have four houses with the fronts entirely removed, 


8 

except a two-foot wire netting, which keeps the fowls in, and the sparrows, etc., 
out. These houses for this climate must be low down, especially in front, to keep 
out the snow and a portion of the wind. It is the writer's opinion that Fig. 7 will 
meet the needs of the average farmer, where he wishes to keep seventy-five to one 
hundred hens. The house looks too cold, but the birds do well. They possibly 
could be made to lay more eggs during the months of J anuary and February with 
cotton screens properly adjusted to meet the weather conditions; but few farmers 
would be there at the exact time to do the adjusting, hence we use it entirely open. 

The large window in the west, essential for light, should be hinged at the top, 
so that it may be opened during the summer months, otherwise the house will 
become too warm in summer. 


Fig. 8. Open front poultry house in Fig. 7. 


It will be noticed that no dropping-boards are used in this building. During 
the winter the manure freezes almost as soon as it is made, hence no odor or bad 
results, and if cleaned, say, every two months, it will answer very M-ell. We would 
rather have this condition than dropping-boards, covered one foot deep with manure, 
as we so frequently see them. 

A number of houses of this style are in operation in various parts of the 
Province, and they are givng fair results. In some of the colder sections, such as 
in the districts north o't Barrie, the house appears to be too open for severe winter 
weather. In such cases I would suggest using movable cotton screens on two 
se-^tions of the front. The illustration shows three sections, one of which should 
always be open. During the winter months the centre screen may be closed nearly 
all the time and the end screen moved to either side, depending on the direction 
from which the wind is blowing. I have seen similar houses, two-thirds of the 
front of which were covered with a cotton frame which could be thrown on the 
roof during bright, warm days and let down over the front during the cold nights 
and stormy weather. 


9 

In a few cases, open frout houses have been built only twelve or fifteen feet 
deep and twenty or more feet across the front. This is not advisable, owing to the 
fact that should there be a direct wind blowing into the house the birds cannot 
get back far enough to be out of the draught. This house is built to accommodate 
not less than one hundred birds, and will work well with as many as one hundred 
and twenty-five during winter weather. If a smaller house than the twenty by 
twenty is desired it should be built, say, twenty feet deep and ten feet wide rather 
than ten feet deep and twenty wide. The width across the front should never 
exceed the depth. 

Snow will occasionally blow into the house, but we have had very little trouble 
in this respect. Having the building deep, low, and narrow tends to prevent this. 
A rather small opening in front will npt allow the wind and snow to blow far back 
into the house and the depth allows the birds to keep out of the wind. If there is 
continuous rainy or damp weather for several days the litter will become damp and 
must be removed at once. Both walls and floor must be kept dry or the birds are 
likely to suffer from disease of some kind. There should be no opening except that 
in the front, or there is likely to be a draft through the house, and this should be 
avoided. 

The following is tlie egg production for 100 April hatched White Leghorn 
pullets from November, 1912, to June, 1913 (inclusive). These pullets were 
housed in an open front house (see Figure 7) : 

Total Egg Production. 

Pullets laying in Xovember, 71 795 

' December, 68 889 

January, 65 753 

February, 74 554 

March, 92 1,765 

April, 99 2,023 

May, 94 1,863 

June, 91 1,688 


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Note. — The winter of 1912-13 will be remembered as exceptionally mild. We 
have seen the temperature as low as nine degrees below zero inside the house during 
other winters. Some males combs will freeze at such temperatures, and, moreover, 
the egg production is slightly affected for a few days. 

In conclusion, we are free to admit that the open-front house apparently keeps 
the stock in better health, brighter in plumage, and it requires less labor than 
any house we have yet used. It is not perfect, and no doubt could be improved upon 
for special, painstaking poultrymen, but this class is very limited, and the house as 
now used comes most near to meeting the average man's position. 

Long, Continuous House. 

No doubt some readers will wish for a plan of a long, continuous house, in 
which a large number of fowls may be housed under one roof, or where a number of 
different breeds can be kept in the same building. 

Fig. 6 gives the ground plan of this building as now used. The partitions are 
temporary, made of cloth tacked to wooden frames, and can be moved or adjusted to 
suit almost any sized flock. This house was originally used for. flocks of 50, 75 and 
100 laying hens, with the idea of testing large and small flocks. The house was used 
in this manner for three seasons with slishtlv better results from the flock of 50. 


10 

The plan as now given accommodates 25 fowls in each flock, with the exception 
of the large pen, in which can be kept 75 fowls of such breeds as Eocks or 
Orpingtons, or 90 of such as Leghorns. The large pen could, of course, be divided 
into the smaller pens. 


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11 

For the purpose of carrying on more extensive breeding work a long, con- 
tinuous house was built in the fall of 1912. This building is 208 feet long, 12 feet 
wide, 8 feet high in front, and 5 feet high at the back. The house is single 
boarded with inch lumber, the cracks battened. It rests on a concrete foundation 
8 inches wide at the bottom and 6 inches at the top, the floor also being of concrete 
3 inches in thickness. Below the floor is at least 8 inches of small stones, on which 
was placed enough gravel to allow the laying of the floor. Our experience is that 
it requires at least 8 inches of filling such as small stones, etc., beneath the concrete. 
The studs are 2 inches by 4 inches placed 3 feet 6 inches apart and the rafters 
2 inches by 6 inches each placed 2 feet apart. 


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Fig. 9 A. 


For breeding work it is often advisable to mate small pens. This house is 
divided into thirty-two pens each 6 feet 6 inches wide, each pen accommodating 
about eight or ten birds. A dropping-board three feet from the floor is used. 
There are two roosts four feet long to each pen. 

A portion of each partition is made movable so that larger pens may be had 
should they be required. Four and one-half feet from the back they are of matched 
lumber and stationary, the balance being of two wooden frames covered with nine- 


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14 

ounce duck. These may be removed at any time and a number of pens allowed to 
run together. If this is done, the solid portion of the partition at the back 
materially assists in checking drafts, which are common in long, narrow pens. 

In the front of each pen is a door and also a window consisting of sixteen 
lights eight inches by ten inches, as shown in Fig. 9 A. The upper part of the door 
is of wire netting covered with a movable frame in extremely cold or stormy weather. 
This style of house should prove useful to poultry breeders. During the winter 
of 1912-13 the cotton frames were not used the greater part of the time and we had 
little or no trouble with frozen combs. 

General Eules foe Building. 

Every hen should be allowed at least four to six square feet of floor space. 
Each bird of the Plymouth Eock, Wyandotte, and such breeds, requires about nine 
inches of perch room ; Leghorns, etc., about eight inches ; and Brahmas ten inches. 


Figs. 12 and 13. Front and Back Views of Nests. {Poultry Craft.) 


Eoosts should be made low, or near the ground. There are several reasons for 
this. Fowls of the heavier breed cannot fly high, and those of the lighter breeds 
frequently injure the soles of their feet in jumping from high perches. 

When dropping-boards are used, they should be moderately low down, to admit 
of easy cleaning. Dropping-boards should be made of matched lumber, and should 
be twenty inches wide for one roost, and three feet for two perches, the first being 
placed eight to ten inches from the wall. 

Most poultrymen prefer roosts two inches by two inches, with edges slightly 
rounded. 

Nests. — Many use only old boxes; but such nests, if near the ground, are apt 
to induce egg-eating. Dark nests prevent this. (Figs. 12 and 13.) 

Nests are usually made from 12 to 15 inches square. 

Cement floors are the cleanest and the results are very good. Their cost is 
a serious objection. Ground floors are more in favor than board floors, and cost 
much less. 

In my own experience, the best results are obtained from keeping 20 to 25 
birds in a flock. Some succeed with 60 to 75 in a flock; but these are the minority. 
We have received fair returns from a flock of lOO hens. 


15 
Colony Houses. 

Many people living in towns and cities wish for plans of houses suitable for 
housing a dozen fowls each. In some instances they wish these houses so con- 
structed that they can be moved from place to place. 

There is also a demand among farmers for a small house for rearing chickens, 
or for small special breeding pens. The plans already given are all adaptable to 
these conditions, and have been used here for the purposes mentioned above. The 
houses are of sufficient size to accommodate 100 chicks to a two-pound weight, or 
fifty chickens to a four or five-pound weight; but for winter use I would not advise 
putting in more than a dozen laying hens. See Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. 


EGG PRODUCTION. 

In considering this subject there are several factors worthy of notice — the 
housing and the range, the breed and the strain, the kind of feed and the method 
of feeding, the attendant, the cleanliness of the buildings, their surroundings and 
the weather. 

In the foregoing pages we have discussed houses, and no further mention is 
needed here. 

The question of which is the best breed is rather a delicate one, and, moreover, 
my experience is that there is as much in strain as there is in breed. However, 
it can be safely stated that the heavier breeds such as Plymouth Eocks, Wyandottes, 
Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, etc., usually lay better during the winter — ^if 
hatched early — than do Leghorns, Hamburgs, etc., or the lighter breeds. The 
lighter or smaller breeds, with us, are more easily affected by sudden climatic 
changes during the winter. Usually their egg production declines considerably 
during a cold snap. Where one has no particular desire to get eggs in winter and 
does not care for roasting chickens, they would find the lighter breeds most pro- 
fitable. Where one wants a general purpose chicken, that is a fair layer during 
both winter and summer, and at the same time a chicken that will make a fair 
broiler or roaster, such breeds as Plymouth Rocks.. Wyandottes, etc., will prove 
most satisfactory. The light breeds can not be depended upon to hatch and rear 
their own young, whereas the heavier breeds may be relied upon for this purpose. 

We have our best egg production yearly from April and early May hatched 
pullets. These will commence laying if well reared between September and 
December, depending upon the strain or family as to whether or not they are late 
or early in maturing. March hatched pullets usually lay during August and then 
go into moult some time in November. These, of course, lay but little before 
March after moulting. They are, however, useful where one must have a constant 
supply of eggs, as the old hens decline rapidly during September and October, and 
the April pullets are then just getting started. 

We find that Leghorn pullets or pullets of similar breeds hatched before April 
15th are apt to moult, so that we usually try and hatch these varieties after the 
middle of April. 

Yearling hens lay fairly well, but older than this they are usually unprofit- 
able, except as breeders when they have shown exceptional merit. 


16 
Collective Results for 138 Pullets fbom; OcTOBEiB 1st, 1909, to September 1st, 1910. 


Males. Females. 


Breed. 


Eggs 
Laid. 


Cost TfW^ Lbs. grain! Lbs. Milk 
perSd consumed.! consumed. 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


12 


23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 


138 


R.I. Reds 

B. Rocks 

R.I. Reds 

B. Rocks. 

B. Rocks (weak) 
B. Rocks (strong) 


3,318 


$29 06 


144.2 


3,341 


27 90 


145.2 


2,599 


25 81 


113 


3,654 


28 44 


158.8 


2,182 


25 18 


94.8 


2,742 


29 62 


119.2 


17,836 


$166 01 


1,662 
1,585 
1,451 
1,626 
1,374 
1,655 


9,353 


2,070 
2,070 
2,027 
2,027 
2,289 
2,401 


12,884 


Average cost per dozen eggs for eleven months 11.16c. 

Average cost of feeding each bird per month for eleven months 10.06c. 

Average number of eggs per bird for eleven months 129.3. 

Average amount of food consumed per bird (males included) in eleven 
months: Grain, 62.35 lbs. or 5.66 lbs. per month; milk, 85.89 lbs. or 7.8 lbs. per 
month. 


Collective Results for 341 Hens and Pullets from October 1st. 1910, to September 1st, 

1911. 


Males. 
1 


Females. 


Breed. 


1 
Fffffc ~! Average 
£5f/ Cost. 1 Eggs 
L^^^- per Bird. 


Lbs. Grain 
consumed. 


Lbs. Milk 
consumed. 


2 


55 

92 

60 

111 

23 


B. Rock Hens 


5,961 
11,928 

6,401 
13,504 

1,726 


$ 74 92 

124 02 

81 26 

118 49 

32 34 


108.3 4.357 


4,787 


4 


B. Rock Pullets 


129.6 
106.6 
121.6 

75.0 


7,042 
4,805 
6,739 

1,874 


9,195 


b 

' 6 

2 


B. Orpington Pullets 

White Legliorn Pullets .... 

Black Minorca Hens and 

Pullets 


4,597 
8,704 

2,118 


19 


341 


39,520 


$431 03 


24,817 


29,401 


Average cost per dozen eggs for eleven month* 13.08c. 

Average cost of feeding each bird per month for eleven months 10.88c. 

Average number of eggs per bird for eleven months 115.8. 

Average amount of food consumed per bird (males included) in evelen 
months: Grain, 68.9 lbs. " or 6.2 lbs. per month; milk, 81.6 lbs. or 7.1 lbs. per 
month. 

Collective Results for 266 Pitllets from November 1st, 1912, to October 1st, 1913. 


Males. 


Females. 


Breed. 


Eggs 
Laid. 


Cost. 


Average 

Eggs 
per Bird. 


Lbs. Grain 
consumed. 


Lbs. Milk 
consumed. 


5 
1 
1 


105 
20 
19 
22 

100 


B. Rock Pullets 

W. Wyandotte Pullets .... 
R.I. Red Pullets 


13,750 
2,247 
2,352 
2,335 

13,306 


$134 54 

27 99 

27 26 

31 70 

107 01 


130.9 
112.3 
123.7 
106.1 
133.0 


7,860 
1.670 
1,618 
1,819 
6,340 


8,323 
1,472 
1,499 


1 
6 


B. Orpington Pullets 

W. Leghorn Pullets 


2.214 

5,955 


14 


266 


33,990 


$328 50 


19,307 


19,463 


17 

Average cost per dozen eggs for eleven months 11.5c. 

Average cost of feeding each bird per month for eleven months 10.6c. 

Average number of eggs per bird for eleven months 127.7, 

Average amount of food consumed per bird (males included) in eleven 
months: grain, 68.9 lbs. or 6.2 lbs. per month; milk, 69.5 lbs. or 6.3 lbs. per month. 

The following are the averages for the three years: 

Average cost per dozen eggs for eleven months 12.1c. 

Average cost of feeding each bird per month (males included) eleven months 
10.6c. 

Average number of eggs per bird for eleven months 122.6. 

Average amount of food consumed per bird (males included) eleven months: 
grain. 67.6 lbs. or 6.1 lbs. per month; milk, 78.1 lbs. or 7.1 lbs. per month. 


FEEDS AND FEEDING. 

A fowl requires grain food, vegetable food, meat food, and grit. These foods 
should be clean and wholesome, and furthermore a portion of them should be 
given in some form so as to induce the birds to take exercise, so that the fowls will 
be healthy. Fowls should be well supplied with water or milk to drink. Many 
make the serious mistake of not giving sufficient drink or not giving it regularly. 
The supply should be clean and constant. Dirty water, dirty or slimy drinking 
dishes, etc., will do more towards making a flock unhealthy and diseased than any- 
thing else. Most attendants are inclined to forget to clean the drinking vessels, 
and to keep them well filled at all times. 

Graixs. 

Wheat with the Ontario people is the most popular feed and is one of the best. 
It is relished by all classes of poultry. The price of wheat as compared with that 
of other grains during the past few years, makes it necessary to mix other grains 
with it. I doubt very much if it is advisable at any time to feed only one kind 
of grain constantly, as a variety is better; some birds like one grain while others 
relish another. 

Wlieat bran is fed dry in hoppers, also in mashes. It has considerable feeding 
value. It helps materially in adding bulk to the ration, and prevents impaction 
in the stomach. In other words, it aids the digestive fluids in acting upon the 
food. 

Middlings or shorts is of value in ma.shes, to all classes, and 'is one of the 
good foods to check looseness of the bowels, where an excess of vegetables is given. 

Low-grade flour is often a cheap and economical food in mashes for stock 
birds or for fattening chickens. It also has a tendency to check looseness of the 
bowels. 

Corn is not used so much in Ontario as in the New England States. There it 
appears to be used quite freely in both summer and winter feeding of fowls. It is 
used whole, ground, and cracked, the meal being used principally in the mash 
foods. Cracked corn is used largely for young chicks, and fowls when scattered in 
the litter. The whole corn is rather large and conspicuous; and when in the 
litter does not usually give sufficient exercise. I am of the opinion that corn can 
be used in portions of Ontario, where it is grown extensively, much more freely 
Bulletin 217. 


18 

than it has heen heretofore. Corn is a heating and fattening food, and is, there- 
fore, best adapted for winter use. It is considered by many, when fed m large 
quantities, to make the hens over fat; yet it is used extensively by many progres- 
sive poultrymen with little or no evil effects. 

Oats should be a iirst-class poultry food, but owing to the large percentage 
of hull, they are not relished by chickens when fed whole, and for this reason are 
somewhat indigestible. When rolled, hull and all, they are an ideal food as a dry 
mash, and are relished by fowls better than any other dry mash we have yet used. 
Ground oats without the hull are used extensively for fattening chickens. 

Barley, either whole or ground, is very good. It has rather too much hull, 
but otherwise is a satisfactory food. It is considered by many to be next to wheat 

in point of value. 

Buckwheat is very popular as an egg producer in districts where it is exten- 
sively grown. Some difficulty is at times experienced when first feeding it to fowls 
irl getting them to eat it. But this is usually overcome in a day or so, if other feeds 
are withheld. Boiling the buckwheat will sometimes start the birds to eat it. After 
they once get accustomed to its appearance, it is much relished by them. Ground 
buckwheat is an excellent food to use in a fattening ration. It is somewhat like 
corn in its fattening properties, and, therefore, it is better for winter than for 
summer use. 

Method of Feeding the Winter Laying Stock at the O.A.C. 

We try to simplify our methods and use only the common foods, and at 
the present time are using as whole grains wheat, corn and buckwheat. These 
grains are .fed in equal parts both morning and evening. The morning feed is 
fed the previous evening after the hens have gone to roost, by sowing it on the 
litter, and then turning the litter over; the straw is now on top and the grain 
below, and when the hens get up in the morning, they start to dig out the grain, 
and are kept busy all forenoon. At noon we- feed mangels, cabbage or clover 
hay. The night feed consists of the whole grain fed in troughs, and what the 
birds do not eat is taken up. Eolled oats are kept constantly before the hens in 
hoppers. Buttermilk only is given as drink. 

Method of Feeding the Summer Laying Stock at the O.A.C. 

At the present time our plan of feeding is to scatter whole grain in the litter 
both morning and evening. The grains used are wheat, barley, oats, and occasion- 
ally buckwheat and corn. Green food is supplied in the form of grass, etc., in 
the runs. Sour milk is given as drink. 

Dry Feeding. 

The tendency at the present time is to feed dry grain, and to use no wet 
mash foods. It has been claimed by some writers that mash foods, while tending 
to force growth, and possibly egg production, do not tend to produce good eggs 
for hatching purposes ; that is to say, the mash is more or less of a forcing food. 
In the production of eggs, the number produced is probably as large if not larger 
where mashes are used, but the hatching power of the eggs in some instances 
is not as high. During the past two or three years we have not fed any wet 
mashes to our 'breeding birds, and have fed in place some sprouted grain, but 
mostiy rolled oats in hoppers. As far as we can see at the present time the 


19 

sprouting does not improve tJie feeding qualities of grain very much, with the 
one exception of oats. The palatability of oats is increased considerably. We 
have made ihe oats equally palatable by having them rolled or flattened, that is 
the hull and all. 

Feeding When Wet Mashes are Used. 

The general method of feeding is to give a mash of mixed ground grains 
moistened v^ith water or milk, in the' morning ; a little whole grain scattered in the 
straw covering the floor, at noon; and all the whole grain they will eat at night. 
This latter meal is usually fed in the straw. Some poultry men adopt the plan 
of not feeding the mash until evening, we have been practising this plan for 
some time, and we like it very well. The objection to the former plan is that 
the hen is likely to become gorged with food early in the morning, and thus 
take to the roost for the rest of the day, which is usually followed by hens becom- 
ing too fat, and the egg record becoming small; but, notwithstanding, many 
successful poultrymen use this method to advantage. The objection to feeding 
the mash at night is that it becomes quickly digested, and the bird has not 
sufficient food to last it during the long winter night; but this objection can be 
overcome by giving a little whole grain after the mash at night. 

Some poultrymen feed their fowls but twice a day, morning and evening, 
and get very good results; but I favor feeding three times a day. Our plan is 
somewhat as follows : — 

Early in the morning the fowls are given half a handful each of whole 
grain. This is buried in" the litter on the floor. Thus the fowls get exercise (a 
very necessary thing) in searching for it and at the same time keep themselves 
warm. At noon about two handsful of grain are given to a dozen hens in the 
litter; they are also given all the roots they will eat, either pulped or whole, as 
fowl relish mangels, sugar beets and turnips. Cabbages also — a very good green 
food — is sometimes given. About four o'clock in the afternoon they are fed a 
mash composed of equal parts of bran, shorts, oat-chop and corn meal (during 
cold weather) ; and to this is added about 10 per cent, of animal meal, if we 
have not cut green bone or cooked meat. These foods are thoroughly mixed 
together in the dry state, after which is added steeped clover, which has been 
prepared by getting a bucket of clover leaves, or cut clover hay, and scalding it 
with boiling water. This is done early in the morning, and the bucket is kept 
covered with a thick sack throughout the day. This will be quite warm at night, 
if it has been kept in a warm place. There is usually sufficient liquid to moisten 
the meal that has been mixed. Our aim is to have about one-third of the ration, 
in bulk, of clover. After the mash a small amount of whole grain, is fed in the 
straw. There is — and should be — a plentiful supply of good pure water within 
easy r^ach at all times. 

To those who keep but a dozen or so fowls, or to those who wish to economize 
in the feed bills, by using table refuse such as bread, meat, vegetables, etc., the 
wet mash system is commendable, in that these cheap by-products, if clean, and 
cooked, make excellent mashes, when dried ofi^ with shorts and bran or other 
chop. This kind of mash usually gives excellent egg yields, and the labor entailed 
is not a serious consideration, under the above conditions, but it is, at times,, 
where birds are kept in large numbers. 


20 
AxiMAL Foods for Fowls. 

The most expensive foods given to fowls are the animal foods. These are 
used as a substitute for the worms and insects that form a portion of the natural 
summer food of fowls upon free range. Flocks confined to small runs require to 
be fed more or less animal foods during the winter, and during very long dry 
spells in the summer; even where the range is unlimited it frequently pays to feed 
a little animal food. 

Animal foods usually assist very materially in the production of eggs in 
winter. By some people these foods are considered as a forcing food, that is to 
say, they will induce heavy laying, which in some instances may be followed by 
serious sickness, or possibly the injury may be only very slight; in fact unnotice- 
able, except that the egg^^ from birds so fed may be of very low hatching power. 

It is generally believed, and I think rightly so, that good egg yields cannot 
annually be secured without the use of such foods as green cut bone, beef scrap, or 
cooked refuse meat, etc. Many believe that the larger the amount of these foods 
fed the greater will be ihe egg production. There is good ground for doubting 
this statement, in that these foods are expensive, and the extra eggs may cost more 
than they are worth. Moreover, herein is where serious injury may be done to the 
hen's digestive and reproductive organs. 

Milk is available on many farms, and it is claimed that as an egg producer 
this food is equal in value to any of the meat foods. Our experience has been that 
sour milk for fowls has a slightly greater value than sweet milk, and is certainly 
much more easily obtained. 

Three years ago we planned an experiment with the idea of studying what 
effect various animal foods would have upon the egg production, and the hatching 
power of the eggs. 

Below is given the results of the first three years' work, that of 1909-1910 
being carried on with Buff Orpington pullets, that of 1910-1911 with Ehode Island 
Eed hens and pullets, and 1911-1912 with Leghorn pullets. 

There were twenty-five females and two males in each pen, and all were housed 
in the same building. The grain and green food used were the same in each pen. 

The animal foods are reckoned at the following prices : 

Buttermilk 20c. per 100 lbs. Beef scrap $3 per 100 lbs. Green cut bone $3 
per 100 lbs. 

Experimental Feeding wit?i Buef Orpingtons. 


The foUowino- are the results for 7 months, from Oct. 1st, 1909, to April 30th, 


1910: 


Pen 

No. 


Animal Food used. 


Lbs. 
Whole 
Grain. 


Lbs. 

Dry 

Mash. 


Lbs. 

Animal 

Food. 


Total 
Cost. 


Total 
Eggs 
Laid. 


Cost 
Dozen 
Eggs. 


Percentage 
of Eggs 
Hatched. 


1 

2 


Riit.fi^rmilk 


720 
840 


233 

337 
216 
224 
196 


1,453 

34 
141 

'"im 

1 


$18 16 

19 85 
22 21 
17 99 
21 37 


2,040 

1,670 
1,664 
1,496 
1,654 


10.68 

14.28 
15.84 
15.48 
15.48 


55.0 


10% dry mash beef 
scrap 


50.5 


3 

4 

5 


Beef scrap in hopper . 

No animal food 

Green cut bone 


900 
900 
900 


33.0 
59.5 
40.5 


21 


Experimental Feeding with K. I. Reds. 
The following are the results of 8 months, Oct. 1st, 1910, to May 31st, 1911 


Pen 

No. 


Animal Food used. 


1 Buttermilk 

2 10% dry mash beef 


scrap 

3 Beef scrap in hopper, 

4 No animal food , 

5 Green cut bone 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. ' 


Total 
Cost. 


Total 


Cost 


Whole 


Dry 


Animal 


Eggs 


Dozen 


Grain. 


Mash. 


Food. 


T,aid. 


Eggs 


973 


535 


1,760.0 


$25 60 


1,762 


17 43 


1 898 


535 


61.5 


23 06 


1,320 


20.96 


! 907 


510 


106.0 


23 92 


1,625 


17.66 


802 


405 


17 70 


730 


29.09 


784 

i 


411 


182.5 


22 44 


1,359 


19.81 


Percentage' 

of Eggs 

Hatched. 


57.0 

56.4 
51.66 
66.25 
64.5 


Experimental Feedixg avitii White Leghorns. 
The following are the results for 7 months, Oct. 1st, 1911, to Oct. 30th, 1912 


Pen 

No. 


Animal Food used. 


Lbs. 
Whole 
Grain. 


Lbs. 

Dry 

Mash 


Lbs. T^toi Total 

Animal J,^;f , Eggs 

Food. ^^^^- Tflid. 


Cost per 
Dozen 
Eggs. 


Percentages 
of Eggs , 
Hatched. , 

1 


1 


Buttermilk 


785 


319 1 -4.i3 .tlQ 46 1 f,m 


15.5 
17.3 
13.4 
19.4 


68.2 


2 

3 

4 


Beef scrap in hopper . . 

No animal food 

Green cut bone 


750 
925 
781 


205 
126 

287 


81 16 76 1,158 

15 77 6t2 

98 18 96 1,193 


69.2 
74.2 
68.6 


Comments o:n Above Tables. 

With all three breeds buttermilk produced the most and the cheapest eggs. 

Where beef scrap was fed in a hopper or where the birds could eat all they 
desired the Leghorns and Ehode Island Eeds did much better than the Orpingtons. 

No animal food in all instances gave the best eggs for hatching and the lowest 
egg yield. 

From the results so far obtained it would appear to be a disastrous practice 
to undertake feeding Leghorns on no meat food ration, or meat food in very small 
quantities, for the reason that they developed feather eating to such an extent that 
some of the birds were killed and the males were a sorry sight, in fact, had to be 
frequently removed from the pen. This was true to a limited extent with the 
Ehode Island Eeds but was not so of the Orpingtons. 

Green Foods. 

When fowls have free range, they eat a considerable amount of grass, or other 
green foods. It would appear, therefore, to be desirable that where birds are 
confined either in small runs during the summer, or in houses when the ground 
is covered with snow in winter, some effort should be made to supply this food. 

Many foods are available, such as waste cabbage, mangels, turnips, rape, clover, 
hay, or clover leaves, and green food grown especially for the purpose. 


32 

Early in the fall we use cabbage or rape; or at times where the runs have 
been sown to fall rye or wheat, the fowls are allowed to feed upon these. Where 
rape is extensively fed it frequently will cause the whites of the eggs to have a 
greenish cast, which renders them unmarketable. This food is relished by the 
fowls, but must be fed carefully. Cabbage at times will flavor the eggs slightly, 
and if frozen may cause serious digestive troubles. Both rape and cabbage make 
good green foods, but good judgment must be exercised in their use. 

Mangels are a very succulent food and are relished by the birds during the 
winter. They can be fed either pulped or whole. When they are fed whole, we 
usually stick them on a projecting nail, at a convenient height, upon the wall of 
the pen. When these are fed freely they frequently scour the fowls. For this 
reason during some seasons we are obliged to feed them not more than twice a 
week. 

Turnips may flavor the eggs. They are not as palatable as mangels, in fact 
some birds will not eat them at all, but at the same time they have considerable 
food value. 

Clover leaves, either steamed or dry, are relished very much, and upon the 
whole are the most reliable winter green food. One hundred hens will eat from 
a peck to a bushel of clover leaves daily. This